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Biodiversity (General)

• Assessing the ecological impact of pesticides/herbicides on algal communities: A comprehensive review
  The escalating use of pesticides in agriculture for enhanced crop productivity threatens aquatic ecosystems, jeopardizing environmental integrity and human well-being. Pesticides infiltrate water bodies through runoff, chemical spills, and leachate, adversely affecting algae, vital primary producers in marine ecosystems. The repercussions cascade through higher trophic levels, underscoring the need for a comprehensive understanding of the interplay between pesticides, algae, and the broader ecosystem. Algae, susceptible to pesticides via spillage, runoff, and drift, experience disruptions in community structure and function, with certain species metabolizing and bioaccumulating these contaminants. The toxicological mechanisms vary based on the specific pesticide and algal species involved, particularly evident in herbicides' interference with photosynthetic activity in algae. Despite advancements, gaps persist in comprehending the precise toxic effects and mechanisms affecting algae and non-target species. This review consolidates information on the exposure and toxicity of diverse pesticides and herbicides to aquatic algae, elucidating underlying mechanisms. An emphasis is placed on the complex interactions between pesticides/herbicides, nutrient content, and their toxic effects on algae and microbial species. The variability in the harmful impact of a single pesticide across different algae species underscores the necessity for further research. A holistic approach considering these interactions is imperative to enhance predictions of pesticide effects in marine ecosystems. Continued research in this realm is crucial for a nuanced understanding of the repercussions of pesticides and herbicides on aquatic ecosystems, mainly algae.
  [Narayanan, N. et al. (2024) Assessing the ecological impact of pesticides/herbicides on algal communities: A comprehensive review, Aquatic Toxicology. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0166445X24000225?via%3Dihub.]
• Beyond the field: How pesticide drift endangers biodiversity
  Airborne pesticide drift poses a substantial environmental threat in agriculture, affecting ecosystems far from the application sites. This process, in which up to 25% of applied pesticides are carried by air currents, can transport chemicals over hundreds or even thousands of kilometers. Drift rates peak during the summer months, reaching as high as 60%, and are influenced by various factors, including wind speed, temperature, humidity, and soil type. Pesticide volatilization is a significant concern, occurring 25 times more frequently than surface runoff. Under certain conditions, it can result in chemical losses of compounds like metolachlor and atrazine that are up to 150 times higher. These drifting pesticides have profound impacts on biodiversity, harming non-target plants, insects, fungi, and other organisms both near application sites and in distant ecosystems. Pesticide drift has been linked to over 50% reductions in wild plant diversity within 500 m of fields, reducing floral resources for pollinators. Despite growing evidence of these effects, the long-term consequences of airborne pesticides on biodiversity remain poorly understood, especially in complex field conditions with multiple pesticide applications. Addressing this requires urgent measures, such as improved meteorological tracking during applications, adoption of biopesticides, and integrated pest management strategies. This review highlights the pressing need for research to quantify airborne pesticides' ecological impacts, advocating for sustainable practices to mitigate environmental damage.
  [Albaseer, S. et al. (2024) Beyond the field: How pesticide drift endangers biodiversity, Environmental Pollution. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749124022437.]
• Comparing the effects of three neonicotinoids on embryogenesis of the South African clawed frog Xenopus laevis
  Neonicotinoids (NEOs) are widely used insecticides that are ubiquitous in agricultural use. Since NEOs are found in natural waters as well as in tap water and human urine in regions where NEOs are widely used, NEOs pose a potential hazard to non-target organisms such as animals and humans. Some of the commonly detected NEOs are imidacloprid (IMD), thiamethoxam (TMX), and its metabolite clothianidin (CLO). Although previously published scientific information, including an assessment of the environmental risks, particularly for bees, had resulted in a ban on the outdoor use of these three NEOs in the EU – their use is now only permitted in closed greenhouses – these NEOs continue to be used in agriculture in many other parts of the world. Therefore, a detailed study and comparison of the effects of NEOs on the embryonic development of non-target organisms is needed to further define the risk profiles.

  Embryos of the South African clawed frog Xenopus laevis, a well-established aquatic model, were exposed to different concentrations of IMD, TMX, or CLO (0.1–100 mg/L) to study and compare the possible effects of a single contaminant in natural water bodies on early embryogenesis. The results included a reduced body length, a smaller orbital space, impaired cranial cartilage and nerves, and an altered heart structure and function. At the molecular level, NEO exposure partially resulted in an altered expression of tissue-specific factors, which are involved in eye, cranial placode, and heart development.

  Our results suggest that the NEOs studied negatively affect the embryonic development of the non-target organism X. laevis. Since pesticides, especially NEOs, pollute the environment worldwide, it is suggested that they are strictly controlled and monitored in the areas where they are used. In addition, the question arises as to whether pesticide metabolites also pose a risk to the environment and need to be investigated further so that they can be taken into account when registering ingredients.
  [Flach, H. et al. (2024) Comparing the effects of three neonicotinoids on embryogenesis of the South African clawed frog xenopus laevis, Current Research in Toxicology. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2666027X24000227?via%3Dihub. ]

• Digging below the surface: Hidden risks for ground-nesting bees
  Modern intensive agriculture faces a critical paradox: The very pesticides designed to protect our crops endanger essential pollinators that sustain their productivity. As human reliance on pollinator-dependent crops grows, it becomes more urgent than ever to reconcile the need for crop protection with pollinator preservation. The stakes are high, as pollinators, such as bees, are vital to food security and biodiversity.
  [Rondeau, S. (2024) Digging below the surface: Hidden risks for ground-nesting bees, Science. Available at: https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adt8998.]
• Drivers and barriers to adoption of regenerative agriculture: cases studies on lessons learned from organic
  Regenerative agriculture has emerged as a potentially outcome-based paradigm centring on soil health, biodiversity and other environmental and social parameters. Early days of organic agriculture also focused on philosophy first and evolved into a process-based regulatory paradigm whose adoption remains small relative to conventional production. Five case studies of professional growers, representing a total of 100,000 acres of production, were collected to identify reasons for choosing to grow or stop growing organic, challenges faced and attitudes around regenerative agriculture. Growers identified issues of complex and unpredictable regulation, labour, inability to predict market trends and secure needed premiums, cost and effectiveness of natural fertilizers and lack of effectiveness in pest control. These growers adopted similar practices (e.g., integrated pest management) for environmental benefits across conventional and organic acres, and viewed consumer demand and potential profitability rather than environmental benefits as the main drivers for practising organic. Growers expressed interest in outcome-based regenerative agriculture. To be viable, a programme requires criteria on measurement and certification, regionally tailored flexibility and clear financial incentives. Growers doubt such a programme would replace organic but see opportunities for new marketing programmes, particularly in carbon sequestration and water management. Challenges identified by growers warrant further study.
  [Lemke, S. et al. (2024) Drivers and barriers to adoption of regenerative agriculture: cases studies on lessons learned from organic, International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability. Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14735903.2024.2324216. ]
• Ecological Crisis Due to Chemical Toxicity: Addressing Soil Health for Better Human Health
  When environmental changes undermine a species' or population's ability to survive, it is said to be in an ecological crisis. Pesticides, particularly persistent organic pollutants (POPs), are among the top ten chemicals and hazardous compounds that the WHO has recognized as being a concern for global health. The overuse and improper handling of agrochemicals is the primary driver of the ecological disaster. According to the GBD 2019, pollution of any type, including air pollution, lead, and other chemicals, causes one in six deaths globally. Industrialization, urbanization, population growth, the burning of fossil fuels, and a lack of adequate national or international chemical policies account for the 66% increase in deaths. Because of lack of awareness, training, and proper expertise regarding agrochemicals, it is particularly challenging to determine the influence on human health or the environment in developing nations. Studies in Northern India have shown evidence of the presence of heavy metals and pesticides in samples of fodder, vegetables, milk, urine, and blood. In addition to signs of genotoxic effect, there were significantly more spontaneous abortions, premature births, stillbirths that were five times as frequent, delay in milestone development, language delays, blue lines in the gums, mottled teeth, and gastrointestinal diseases, which may have been brought on by water contamination with pesticides and heavy metals. The greater rates of cancer including breast, uterus/cervix, ovary cancers of the blood and lymphatic system, oesophagus, and bones, are associated with farming, pesticides exposure, alcohol and smoking. Hence the soil and water have cocktail of pesticides and heavy metals. Pesticides have been widely used, and it is possible to find their remnants in the air, water, and soil. The three most important environmental problems affecting the globe now are pollution, climate change, and biodiversity loss. Various new concepts, including sustainable agriculture reforms and food production that uses sustainable practices, have been inspired by the pressing need for a more sustainable and ecological approach. This review elaborates the extent of pollution due to heavy metals and pesticides with their health impacts and the regulatory measures to overcome this by various methods such as concept of soil security, food security, Natueco farming and multisectoral approach.
  [Thakur, J.S. and Paika, R. (2024) Ecological crisis due to chemical toxicity: Addressing soil health for better human health, Journal of Environmental Science and Public Health. Available at: https://www.fortunejournals.com/articles/ecological-crisis-due-to-chemical-toxicity-addressing-soil-health-for-better-human-health.html.]
• Effect of organic farming on root microbiota, seed production and pathogen resistance in winter wheat fields
  Societal Impact Statement
  Agricultural intensification is a major driver of biodiversity decline in agrosystems. For instance, it has been shown that conventional farming leads to a decline in soil microbial diversity and triggers a strong selection process, altering the functioning of the whole ecosystem. The present study shows that organic farming increases diversity and affects composition of crop plant microbiota, mostly as a response to field management and soil characteristics. Furthermore, crop plant microbiota influences crop production and resistance to pathogens. Therefore, agricultural practices affect plant performance through microorganism-mediated changes, which may be important pillars of future sustainable crop production.

  Summary
  Agricultural intensification threatens biodiversity, but the effects of intensification on microorganisms are still overlooked despite their role in ecosystem functioning. Microorganisms associated with plants provide many services that affect plant growth and health. Organic farming is expected to strongly affect species composition, richness, and their interactions. We analyzed the effect of the farming system on endophytic microbial assemblages associated with winter wheat plants and plant performance in the field.
  We collected environmental data through farmer interviews, soil analyses, and plant inventories and analyzed root microbiota at vegetative and flowering stages.
  Organic farming increased fungal and bacterial diversity associated to wheat plants and affected species composition in most phyla. This effect was mostly due to soil characteristics and field management and a little to plant diversity in the field. Microbial responses were more pronounced at the late developmental stage, likely as a result of accumulative effect of management actions during plant development. Seed production and resistance to pathogens were related to specific phyla that are important for seed production and/or wheat resistance to septoriose.
  This work advances our understanding of how agricultural practices affect plant performance through microorganism-mediated changes and supports the use of microorganisms as pillars of sustainable crop production.
  [Ricono, C. et al. (2024) Effect of organic farming on root microbiota, seed production and pathogen resistance in winter wheat fields, Plants, People, Planet. Available at: https://nph.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ppp3.10602.]

• Effects of Agricultural Pesticides on Decline in Insect Species and Individual Numbers
  As agricultural production increases, the use of chemical fertilisers, herbicides, and other synthetic pesticides has equally increased over the years. Inadequate pesticide application description and monitoring has generated a heated debate among governmental organisations, agricultural industries, and conservation organisations about pesticide effects on insect species richness and abundance. This review is therefore aimed at summarizing the decline in insects’ species and individual numbers as a result of extensive pesticide utilisation and recommends possible management strategies for its mitigation. This review revealed an average pesticide application of 1.58 kg per ha per year, 0.37 kg per person per year, and 0.79 kg per USD 1000 per year. Insects have experienced a greater species abundance decline than birds, plants, and other organisms, which could pose a significant challenge to global ecosystem management. Although other factors such as urbanisation, deforestation, monoculture, and industrialisation may have contributed to the decline in insect species, the extensive application of agro-chemicals appears to cause the most serious threat. Therefore, the development of sustainable and environmentally friendly management strategies is critical for mitigating insect species’ decline.
  [Quandahor, P. et al. (2024) Effects of agricultural pesticides on decline in insect species and individual numbers, Environments. Available at: https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3298/11/8/182.]
• Effects of tillage intensity and pesticide treated seeds on epigeal arthropod communities and weed seed predation in a maize-soybean rotation
  Tillage practices and the use of pesticide seed treatments (PST) both have the potential to influence epigeal arthropod communities and the ecosystem services they provide, yet few studies have examined both factors in conjunction. A three-year field study (2017–2019) was conducted to assess the independent and interactive effects of tillage and pesticide seed treatments on epigeal arthropod communities and weed seed predation in a long-term row crop tillage intensity experiment located in southeastern New Hampshire, USA. Throughout the study, maize and soybean were planted in rotation with and without pesticide seed treatments (seed coatings containing a mixture of systemic and contact fungicides and neonicotinoid insecticides) under three tillage systems (full-, strip-, and no-till) in a randomized complete block design with four replications. Epigeal arthropod communities were sampled with pitfall traps from September to October 2018–2019 and weed seed predation was assessed over the same period each year from 2017–2019. A total of 1669 individual arthropods, representing 47 taxonomic groups, were observed over the course of the study. In 2018, epigeal arthropod communities differed based only on pesticide seed treatment. The opposite response was observed in 2019, as epigeal arthropod communities differed based only on tillage. Activity densities of Pterostichus melanarius (Illiger) were higher in the strip-till compared to full-till treatment in 2018. Annual levels of post-dispersal weed seed predation by invertebrates (% total seeds removed) varied based on tillage treatment in 2017 and 2019, but not in 2018, and ranged from as low as 6.1 % to as much as 27.2 % depending on year and treatment. These data provide evidence that both pesticide seed treatments and tillage systems can influence the communities of epigeal arthropods that inhabit annual row crop agroecosystems relatively late in the growing season, when the majority of pesticide residues have likely dissipated, and that the weed seed predation services provided by members of this community can be strongly negatively impacted by intensive tillage.
  [Ativor, I., Warren, N. and Smith, R. (2024) Effects of tillage intensity and pesticide treated seeds on epigeal arthropod communities and weed seed predation in a maize-soybean rotation, Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0167880924004560. ]
• Flooding as a Vector for the Transport of Pesticides from Streams to Riparian Plants
  Agricultural pesticides occurring in surface freshwaters can be transported back to land via various transport routes, such as emerging insects or flooding. However, we lack information about whether flooding events can contribute to this transport in smaller agricultural catchments and the potential cascading effect of these pesticides on the recipient food web. We used UHPLC-MS/MS to measure 98 pesticides and metabolites in five riparian plant species and root-zone soils collected in five streams in Southwest Germany. All sampling locations included two paired sites differing in their flooding frequency. Six fungicides and three herbicides were frequently detected in regularly flooded sites. The regularly flooded sites contained more pesticides and higher concentrations compared with the rarely flooded sites. This pattern was present in both plants and root-zone soil, suggesting flooding as a vector for the aquatic–terrestrial transport in small streams. Prosulfocarb, pendimethalin, cyflufenamid, and flufenacet occurred at higher concentrations in plants than in soil, while the opposite result was found for spiroxamine, metrafenone, and boscalid. Our study provides evidence from the field that flooding events, which may increase due to climate change, can transport pesticides to riparian soils and plants with potential cascading effects on terrestrial food webs.
  [Fiolka, F. et al. (2024) Flooding as a Vector for the Transport of Pesticides from Streams to Riparian Plants, American Chemical Society ES&T Water. Available at: https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acsestwater.4c00571.]
• Glyphosate formulations cause mortality and diverse sublethal defects during embryonic development of the amphibian Xenopus laevis
  The human impact on environmental landscapes, such as land use, climate change or pollution, is threatening global biodiversity and ecosystems maintenance. Pesticides like the herbicide glyphosate have garnered considerable attention due to their well-documented harmful effects on non-target species. During application, the active ingredient glyphosate is utilized in various formulations, each containing different additive adjuvants. However, the possible effects of these formulations on amphibians - the group with the highest decline rates among vertebrates - remain largely unknown.
  Therefore, the present study investigated the effects of four glyphosate formulations (Glyphosat TF, Durano TF, Helosate 450 TF, Kyleo) on the embryonic development of the model organism Xenopus laevis (South African clawed frog). Embryos at the 2-cell stage were exposed to various concentrations of glyphosate formulations (glyphosate: 0.01–100 mg/L), and mortality as well as sublethal effects on different organs and tissues were analyzed. The results indicated that the formulations had different effects, particularly on the mortality of Xenopus laevis embryos. At sublethal concentrations, the formulations altered the embryos' external appearance, leading to malformations such as reduced eye and head size. In addition, exposure to formulations impaired heart morphology and function, and the expression of heart-specific genes was altered at a molecular level.
  Our results confirmed that glyphosate formulations had a stronger effect on Xenopus laevis embryogenesis than pure glyphosate. Therefore, it is crucial to evaluate the active ingredient and the co-formulations independently, as well as the combined, commercially available products, during pesticide risk assessments and renewal procedures of agrochemicals. The severe global decline of amphibians, partly due to herbicide use, highlights the need for strict and efficient monitoring of environmental pesticide loads and application areas.
  [Flach, H. et al. (2024) Glyphosate formulations cause mortality and diverse sublethal defects during embryonic development of the amphibian Xenopus laevis, Chemosphere. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0045653524025244.]
• Identification of DDT+ in Deep Ocean Sediment and Biota in the Southern California Bight
  The recent rediscovery of offshore DDT waste dumping in the Southern California Bight (SCB) has led to questions about the extent and type of pollution in deep ocean environments. We used a nontargeted analysis to identify halogenated organic compounds (HOCs), including DDT+, in sediment in the San Pedro Basin. Additionally, we examined the chemical profiles of deep ocean biota inhabiting the SCB to assess the bioavailability of DDT+ and HOCs to the deep ocean food web. We detected 49 HOCs across all samples, including 15 DDT+ compounds in the sediment and 10 DDT+ compounds in the biota. Compounds included tris(4-chlorophenyl)methane (TCPM) and its isomers and three unknown DDT-related compounds previously identified in marine mammals. No clear trends were identified regarding DDT+ distribution in sediments. High DDT+ body burdens were found in biota irrespective of collection location, indicating widespread DDT+ contamination in the deep ocean of the SCB. TCPMs were detected in all biota samples except a single surface species, indicating that deep ocean sediment may be a source of DDT+ to the marine food web. This study demonstrates that the analysis of the larger suite of DDT+ is critical to trace deep ocean pollution of DDT in the SCB.
  [Stack, M.E. et al. (2024) ‘Identification of DDT+ in deep ocean sediment and biota in the Southern California bight’, Environmental Science & Technology Letters, 11(5), pp. 479–484. Available at: https://pubs.acs.org/doi/full/10.1021/acs.estlett.4c00115.]
• Insecticides, more than herbicides, land use, and climate, are associated with declines in butterfly species richness and abundance in the American Midwest
  Mounting evidence shows overall insect abundances are in decline globally. Habitat loss, climate change, and pesticides have all been implicated, but their relative effects have never been evaluated in a comprehensive large-scale study. We harmonized 17 years of land use, climate, multiple classes of pesticides, and butterfly survey data across 81 counties in five states in the US Midwest. We find community-wide declines in total butterfly abundance and species richness to be most strongly associated with insecticides in general, and for butterfly species richness the use of neonicotinoid-treated seeds in particular. This included the abundance of the migratory monarch (Danaus plexippus), whose decline is the focus of intensive debate and public concern. Insect declines cannot be understood without comprehensive data on all putative drivers, and the 2015 cessation of neonicotinoid data releases in the US will impede future research.
  [Deynze, B.V. et al. (2024) Insecticides, more than herbicides, land use, and climate, are associated with declines in butterfly species richness and abundance in the American Midwest, PLoS ONE. Available at: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0304319. ]
• Interaction between imidacloprid residues in maize rhizospheric soil and soil nematode community
  Although imidacloprid has been shown to present potential risks to non-target invertebrates and vertebrates, researches exploring this risk from the perspective of the underground ecosystem remains incomplete. In this study, we determined that the presence of imidacloprid significantly reduced the abundance and diversity of soil nematodes in maize rhizospheric soil. Furthermore, imidacloprid also exerted negative effects on the body length, reproduction, locomotion, lipid accumulation, lipofuscin accumulation, and acetylcholinesterase activity in the model organism Caenorhabditis elegans. These toxic phenotypes are correlated with the upregulation of fat-2, fat-6, hsp-16.41, and hsp-16.2, along with the downregulation of ace-1, ace-2, and ace-3. In response to these toxic effects of imidacloprid, nematodes also developed corresponding adaptive mechanisms. UPLC-MS/MS analysis revealed that nematodes could convert imidacloprid to imidacloprid-guanidine and imidacloprid-urea to reduce the toxicity of imidacloprid. Moreover, C. elegans and Meloidogyne incognita exhibited repellent behavior towards imidacloprid-treated area, even the concentration of imidacloprid is only 0.4 μg/mL. This study revealed the interaction between imidacloprid and nematodes, providing a basis for understanding the potential risks of non-target soil nematodes after application of imidacloprid in sustainable agriculture and the resistance mechanism of nematodes to nematocidal pesticide.
  [Zhang, J. et al. (2024) Interaction between imidacloprid residues in maize rhizospheric soil and soil nematode community, Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048357524004528.]
• Investigating protistan predators and bacteria within soil microbiomes in agricultural ecosystems under organic and chemical fertilizer applications
  Organic farming can enhance biodiversity and soil health and is a sustainable alternative to conventional farming. Yet, soil protists especially protistan predators, have received inadequate attention, and their contributions to the sustainability of organic farming remained underexplored. In this study, we examined soil microbial communities from 379 samples, including both organic and chemically fertilized soils from China. Our findings revealed higher bacterial diversity and increases in plant-beneficial bacteria in organically farmed soils. Notably, organic farming systems facilitated dynamic predator-prey interactions, which may be disrupted by the application of chemical fertilizers. Additionally, organic farming enriched protistan predators, enhancing the relative abundance of functional PGPR, thus improving soil health. We further conducted a case study highlighting the critical role of organic matter in sustaining protistan predator populations and their interactions with bacteria. We propose the crucial contributions of organic inputs for supporting protistan predators and the interplay of predator-prey, ultimately enhancing soil functions and promoting agricultural sustainability.
  [Liu, C. et al. (2024) Investigating protistan predators and bacteria within soil microbiomes in agricultural ecosystems under organic and chemical fertilizer applications, Biology and Fertility of Soils . Available at: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00374-024-01845-6. ]
• Organic farming reduces pesticide load in a bird of prey
  Human activities have led to the contamination of all environmental compartments worldwide, including bird species. In birds, both the environment and maternal transfer lead to high inter-brood variability in contamination levels of pollutants, whereas intra-brood variability is generally low. However, most existing studies focused on heavy metals or persistent compounds and none, to our knowledge, addressed the variability in contamination levels of multiple pesticides and the factors influencing it. In this study, the number of pesticides detected (of 104 compounds searched) and the sum of their concentrations in the blood of 55 Montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus) nestlings from 22 nests sampled in 2021 were used as metrics of contamination levels. We investigated the effect of organic farming at the size of male's home range (i.e., 14 km2) and chicks' sex and hatching order on contamination levels. We did not find a difference between inter-brood and intra-brood variability in pesticide contamination levels, suggesting a different exposure of siblings through food items. While chicks' sex or rank did not affect their contamination level, we found that the percentage of organic farming around the nests significantly decreased the number of pesticides detected, although it did not decrease the total concentrations. This finding highlights the potential role of organic farming in reducing the exposure of birds to a pesticide cocktail.
  [Fuentes, E. et al. (2024) Organic farming reduces pesticide load in a bird of prey, Science of The Total Environment. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969724029255.]
• Organic food has lower environmental impacts per area unit and similar climate impacts per mass unit compared to conventional
  In recent years, interest in studying the climate and environmental impact of organic food has grown. Here, we compared the environmental impacts of organic and conventional food using data from 100 life cycle assessment studies. Most studies focused on climate impacts, with fewer addressing biodiversity loss and ecotoxicity. Findings revealed no significant differences in global warming, eutrophication potential, and energy use per mass unit. However, organic food showed lower global warming, eutrophication potential, and energy use per area unit, with higher land use. Additionally, organic farming showed lower potential for biodiversity loss and ecotoxicity. Challenges in life cycle assessment include evaluating biodiversity, toxicity, soil quality, and carbon changes. The choice of functional units influences results, highlighting the importance of considering multiple units in assessing organic food’s environmental footprint. This study emphasizes the necessity for comprehensive assessments at both product and diet levels to support informed decisions.
  [Hashemi, F. et al. (2024) Organic food has lower environmental impacts per area unit and similar climate impacts per mass unit compared to conventional, Communications Earth & Environment. Available at: https://www.nature.com/articles/s43247-024-01415-6. ]
• Pervasive sublethal effects of agrochemicals on insects at environmentally relevant concentrations
  Insect biomass is declining globally, likely driven by climate change and pesticide use, yet systematic studies on the effects of various chemicals remain limited. In this work, we used a chemical library of 1024 molecules—covering insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, and plant growth inhibitors—to assess the impact of sublethal pesticide doses on insects. In Drosophila melanogaster, 57% of chemicals affected larval behavior, and a higher proportion compromised long-term survivability. Exposure to sublethal doses also induced widespread changes in the phosphoproteome and changes in development and reproduction. The negative effects of agrochemicals were amplified when the temperature was increased. We observed similar behavioral changes across multiple insect species, including mosquitoes and butterflies. These findings suggest that widespread sublethal pesticide exposure can alter insect behavior and physiology, threatening long-term population survival.
  [Gandara, L. et al. (2024) Pervasive sublethal effects of agrochemicals on insects at environmentally relevant concentrations, Science. Available at: https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.ado0251. ]
• Residues of agrochemicals in beebread as an indicator of landscape management
  The agricultural intensification represents a major threat to biodiversity, with negative effects on the ecosystem. In particular, habitat loss and degradation, along with pesticide use have been recognised as primary factors contributing to the actual global decline of pollinators. Here we investigated the quality of agroecosystems in the Emilia-Romagna region (Northern Italy) within the national monitoring project BeeNet. We analysed pesticide residues in 100 samples of beebread collected in 25 BeeNet stations in March and June 2021 and 2022. We evaluated diversity and concentration of these chemicals, their risk (TWC) to honey bees, and their correlation with land use. Overall, in 84 % of the samples we found 63 out of 373 different pesticide residues, >90 % of them belonging to fungicides and insecticides. The TWC exceeded the risk threshold in seven samples (TWCmix), mostly due to only one or two compounds. We also found 15 compounds not approved in the EU as plant protection products (PPPs), raising concerns about illegal use or contamination through beeswax recycling. Samples collected in 2021 and in June presented a significantly higher number of active ingredients and TWC than those collected in 2022 and in March. The TWC calculated on single compounds (TWCcom) exceeded the risk threshold in case of four insecticides, namely carbaryl, fipronil, imidacloprid and thiamethoxam (although each detected in only one sample). Finally, both TWC and number of active ingredients were moderately or highly positively correlated with the percentage of area covered by orchards. Considering that we found on average more than five different molecules per sample, and that we ignored potential synergistic effects, the results of this work highlight the alarming situation regarding pesticide treatments and toxicity risk for bees linked to the current agricultural practices, and the need for implementing sustainable and pollinator-friendly strategies.
  [Bogo, G. et al. (2024) Residues of agrochemicals in beebread as an indicator of landscape management, Science of The Total Environment. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969724042232?via%3Dihub. ]
• Risk assessments underestimate threat of pesticides to wild bees
  Ecological risk assessments (ERAs) are crucial when developing national strategies to manage adverse effects from pesticide exposure to natural populations. Yet, estimating risk with surrogate species in controlled laboratory studies jeopardizes the ERA process because natural populations exhibit intraspecific variation within and across species. Here, we investigate the extent to which the ERA process underestimates the risk from pesticides on different species by conducting a meta-analysis of all records in the ECOTOX Knowledgebase for honey bees and wild bees exposed to neonicotinoids. We found the knowledgebase is largely populated by acute lethality data on the Western honey bee and exhibits within and across species variation in LD50 up to 6 orders of magnitude from neonicotinoid exposure. We challenge the reliability of surrogate species as predictors when extrapolating pesticide toxicity data to wild pollinators and recommend solutions to address the (a)biotic interactions occurring in nature that make such extrapolations unreliable in the ERA process.
  [Shahmohamadloo, R., Guzman, L. and Tissier, M. (2024) Risk assessments underestimate threat of pesticides to wild bees, Conservation Letters. Available at: https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/conl.13022. ]
• Synergistic interaction between a toxicant and food stress is further exacerbated by temperature
  Global biodiversity is declining at an unprecedented rate in response to multiple environmental stressors. Effective biodiversity management requires deeper understanding of the relevant mechanisms behind such ecological impacts. A key challenge is understanding synergistic interactions between multiple stressors and predicting their combined effects. Here we used Daphnia magna to investigate the interaction between a pyrethroid insecticide esfenvalerate and two non-chemical environmental stressors: elevated temperature and food limitation. We hypothesized that the stressors with different modes of action can act synergistically. Our findings showed additive effects of food limitation and elevated temperature (25 °C, null model effect addition (EA)) with model deviation ratio (MDR) ranging from 0.7 to 0.9. In contrast, we observed strong synergistic interactions between esfenvalerate and food limitation at 20 °C, considerably further amplified at 25 °C. Additionally, for all stress combinations, the synergism intensified over time indicating the latent effects of the pesticide. Consequently, multiple stress substantially reduced the lethal concentration of esfenvalerate by a factor of 19 for the LC50 (0.45–0.024 μg/L) and 130 for the LC10 (0.096–0.00074 μg/L). The stress addition model (SAM) predicted increasing synergistic interactions among stressors with increasing total stress.
  [Shahid, N., Siddique, A. and Liess, M. (2024) Synergistic interaction between a toxicant and food stress is further exacerbated by temperature, Environmental Pollution. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0269749124018268.]
• The economic impacts of ecosystem disruptions: Costs from substituting biological pest control
  Biodiversity loss is accelerating, yet we know little about how these ecosystem disruptions affect human well-being. Ecologists have documented both the importance of bats as natural predators of insects as well as their population declines after the emergence of a wildlife disease, resulting in a potential decline in biological pest control. In this work, I study how species interactions can extend beyond an ecosystem and affect agriculture and human health. I find that farmers compensated for bat decline by increasing their insecticide use by 31.1%. The compensatory increase in insecticide use by farmers adversely affected health—human infant mortality increased by 7.9% in the counties that experienced bat die-offs. These findings provide empirical validation to previous theoretical predictions about how ecosystem disruptions can have meaningful social costs.
  [Frank, E. (2024) The economic impacts of ecosystem disruptions: Costs from substituting biological pest control, Science. Available at: https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adg0344.]
• The molecular determinants of pesticide sensitivity in bee pollinators
  Bees carry out vital ecosystem services by pollinating both wild and economically important crop plants. However, while performing this function, bee pollinators may encounter potentially harmful xenobiotics in the environment such as pesticides (fungicides, herbicides and insecticides). Understanding the key factors that influence the toxicological outcomes of bee exposure to these chemicals, in isolation or combination, is essential to safeguard their health and the ecosystem services they provide. In this regard, recent work using toxicogenomic and phylogenetic approaches has begun to identify, at the molecular level, key determinants of pesticide sensitivity in bee pollinators. These include detoxification systems that convert pesticides to less toxic forms and key residues in insecticide target-sites that underlie species-specific insecticide selectivity. Here we review this emerging body of research and summarise the state of knowledge of the molecular determinants of pesticide sensitivity in bee pollinators. We identify gaps in our knowledge for future research and examine how an understanding of the genetic basis of bee sensitivity to pesticides can be leveraged to, a) predict and avoid negative bee-pesticide interactions and facilitate the future development of pest-selective bee-safe insecticides, and b) inform traditional effect assessment approaches in bee pesticide risk assessment and address issues of ecotoxicological concern.
  [Bass, C. et al (2024) The molecular determinants of pesticide sensitivity in bee pollinators, Science of The Total Environment. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969724003097.]
• The Role of Biodiversity in Agricultural Resilience: Protecting Ecosystem Services for Sustainable Food Production
  Biodiversity plays a fundamental role in enhancing agricultural resilience and sustaining food production by supporting critical ecosystem services. A diverse array of species within agroecosystems, from crops and livestock to soil organisms and pollinators, contributes to the stability, productivity, and adaptability of farming systems. This biodiversity-driven resilience is essential for mitigating the impacts of climate change, pests, diseases, and resource scarcity, which pose significant threats to global food security. Agricultural systems rich in biodiversity benefit from improved soil fertility, enhanced pollination, natural pest control, and water regulation, all of which reduce dependence on external inputs such as chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Moreover, maintaining genetic diversity within crops and livestock strengthens resilience against environmental stressors and promotes long-term sustainability. However, modern intensive agricultural practices, including monocropping and the overuse of agrochemicals, have resulted in significant biodiversity loss, compromising ecosystem health. This article explores the role of biodiversity in agricultural resilience, examines the threats posed by conventional farming practices, and discusses strategies for integrating biodiversity into agricultural systems to protect ecosystem services. By fostering biodiversity, farmers and policymakers can enhance the sustainability and resilience of agricultural landscapes, contributing to global food security in a changing climate.
  [Christianah, D. and Folarin, I. (2024) The Role of Biodiversity in Agricultural Resilience: Protecting Ecosystem Services for Sustainable Food Production, International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/384848907_The_Role_of_Biodiversity_in_Agricultural_Resilience_Pr]
• Cetaceans as bio-indicators revealed the increased risks of triclosan exposure and associated thyroid hormone disruption during the COVID-19 pandemic.
  The global surge in disinfection practices from the COVID-19 response has raised concerns about the marine exposure to the hazardous ingredients in disinfectant products, including triclosan (TCS) and triclocarban (TCC). However, there are very limited studies on the response of marine TCS and TCC (TCs) loading to the COVID-19 pandemic. Here we used cetaceans as bio-indicators for a long-term retrospective analysis of TCs loading to the South China Sea (SCS) between 2004 and 2022. Hepatic TCs was 100% detected in all nine cetacean species (n = 120). Interestingly, TCS concentrations decreased in Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins (IPHD) before the pandemic from 2010 to 2017. However, after 2019, TCS concentrations in IPHD significantly increased several-fold. Similarly, post-pandemic TCS concentrations in Indo-Pacific finless porpoises (IPFP) and two fish species were significantly higher than pre-pandemic levels. There were significant relationships between thyroid hormones (THs) and TCs in IPHD and IPFP, suggesting that increased TCs may worsen the interference of THs homeostasis and nutritional conditions in cetaceans. These findings demonstrate the profound impact of the surging use of TCs-containing products from the COVID-19 response on marine ecosystems.
  [Guo, Y., Shi, W., Liu, Z., Sun, X. and Wu, Y., 2023. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 459, p.132289.]
• Characterization of Sulfoxaflor and Its Metabolites on Survival, Growth, Reproduction, Biochemical Markers, and Transcription of Genes of Daphnia magna
  Sulfoxaflor is a promising neonicotinoid. However, the negative implications of sulfoxaflor on nontarget aquatic organisms have been rarely studied. In this study, the risks of sulfoxaflor and its main metabolites X11719474 and X11519540 on Daphnia magna were characterized, including acute toxicity, reproduction, swimming behavior, biochemical markers, and gene transcription. Acute toxicity measurements indicated that X11719474 and X11519540 have high toxicity than the parent compound sulfoxaflor. Chronic exposure reduced reproduction and delayed the birth of the firstborn D. magna. Swimming behavior monitoring showed that exposure to three compounds stimulated swimming behavior. The induction of catalase, superoxide dismutase, and acetylcholinesterase activities was observed with oxidative stress, whereas malondialdehyde content was remarkably increased with exposure to sulfoxaflor, X11719474, and X11519540. Moreover, transcriptomics profiles showed that sulfoxaflor, X11719474, and X11519540 induced KEGG pathways related to cellular processes, organismal systems, and metabolisms. The findings present valuable insights into the prospective hazards of these pesticides and emphasize the critical importance of conducting a systematic evaluation of combining antecedents and their metabolites.
  [Yuan, T., Jiao, H., Ai, L., Chen, Y., Hu, D. and Lu, P., 2023. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 71(16), pp.6424-6433.]
• Glyphosate-based formulation affects Tetragonisca angustula worker’s locomotion, behavior and biology
  Declining bee populations diminish pollination services, damaging plant and agricultural biodiversity. One of the causes of this decline is the use of pesticides. Pesticides with glyphosate as the main active ingredient are among the most used pesticides worldwide, being the most used in Brazil. This study determined the 24 and 48 h LD50 (median lethal dose) of the herbicide’s glyphosate-based formulation by ingestion, identified sublethal doses, and investigated its effects on the locomotion and behavior of Tetragonisca angustula workers. The LD50 found indicates that a glyphosate-based formulation is highly toxic to T. angustula. The doses applied, including concentrations found in nature, caused death, motor changes (decreased speed and tremors), excessive self-cleaning, and disorientation (return to light and stop). Although we did not test for pollination effects, we can infer from our results that this formulation can negatively affect the pollination activity of T. angustula. Evaluation of the toxicity and sublethal effects of pesticides on bees contributes to a better understanding of their harmful effects on hives and allows for the development of strategies to reduce these impacts.
  [Prado, I.S., da Rocha, A.A., Silva, L.A. and Gonzalez, V.C., 2023. Ecotoxicology, 32(4), pp.513-524.]
• Haematological and biochemical toxicity in freshwater fish Clarias gariepinus and Oreochromis niloticus following pulse exposure to atrazine, mancozeb, chlorpyrifos, lambda-cyhalothrin, and their combination
  Transient exposures to high or low concentrations of a single or mixture of pesticides are common in aquatic organisms. Routine toxicity tests disregard transient exposures and the influence of time when examining the toxicity of contaminants. This study investigated the haematological and biochemical responses of juvenile C. gariepinus and O. niloticus to pesticide pulse exposure using three exposure patterns. The patterns include 4-hour pulse exposure to a high pesticide concentration, then 28 days of depuration, continuous exposure to a low pesticide concentration for 28 days, and 4-hour pulse exposure to a high concentration followed by continuous exposure to a low pesticide concentration for 28 days. On days 1, 14, and 28, fish samples were collected for haematological and biochemical analysis. Results showed that red blood cell count, packed cell volume, haemoglobin, platelet count, total protein, and sodium ion decreased, while white blood cell count, total cholesterol, bilirubin, urea, and potassium ion increased in both fish species after pulse, continuous and pulse & continuous exposure to the pesticides (p < 0.05). However, pulse exposure to the pesticides did not significantly affect alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase activity, and creatinine levels. The changes in these biomarkers indicate that 4-hour pulse exposure to high concentration was as hazardous as 24-hour continuous exposure to low pesticide concentration (p > 0.05). The toxic effects of pulse exposure were largely reversible by day 14. Using C. gariepinus and O. niloticus, this study shows that brief exposure to high pesticide pesticides was as hazardous as continuous pesticide exposure.
  [Kanu, K.C., Okoboshi, A.C. and Otitoloju, A.A., 2023. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C: Toxicology & Pharmacology, 270, p.109643.]
• Mixture effects of thiamethoxam and seven pesticides with different modes of action on honey bees (Aplis mellifera)
  Even though honey bees in the field are routinely exposed to a complex mixture of many different agrochemicals, few studies have surveyed toxic effects of pesticide mixtures on bees. To elucidate the interactive actions of pesticides on crop pollinators, we determined the individual and joint toxicities of thiamethoxam (THI) and other seven pesticides [dimethoate (DIM), methomyl (MET), zeta-cypermethrin (ZCY), cyfluthrin (CYF), permethrin (PER), esfenvalerate (ESF) and tetraconazole (TET)] to honey bees (Aplis mellifera) with feeding toxicity test. Results from the 7-days toxicity test implied that THI elicited the highest toxicity with a LC50 data of 0.25 (0.20–0.29) μg mL−1, followed by MET and DIM with LC50 data of 4.19 (3.58–4.88) and 5.30 (4.65–6.03) μg mL−1, respectively. By comparison, pyrethroids and TET possessed relatively low toxicities with their LC50 data from the range of 33.78 (29.12–38.39) to 1125 (922.4–1,442) μg mL−1. Among 98 evaluated THI-containing binary to octonary mixtures, 29.59% of combinations exhibited synergistic effects. In contrast, 18.37% of combinations exhibited antagonistic effects on A. mellifera. Moreover, 54.8% pesticide combinations incorporating THI and TET displayed synergistic toxicities to the insects. Our findings emphasized that the coexistence of several pesticides might induce enhanced toxicity to honey bees. Overall, our results afforded worthful toxicological information on the combined actions of neonicotinoids and current-use pesticides on honey bees, which could accelerate farther comprehend on the possible detriments of other pesticide mixtures in agro-environment.
  [Li, W. et al. (2023) Mixture effects of thiamethoxam and seven pesticides with different modes of action on honey bees (Aplis mellifera), Scientific Reports. Available at: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-023-29837-w#ref-CR30. ]
• Mutilation of the tree of life via mass extinction of animal genera
  We are in the sixth mass extinction event. Unlike the previous five, this one is caused by the overgrowth of a single species, Homo sapiens. Although the episode is often viewed as an unusually fast (in evolutionary time) loss of species, it is much more threatening, because beyond that loss, it is causing rapid mutilation of the tree of life, where entire branches (collections of species, genera, families, and so on) and the functions they perform are being lost. It is changing the trajectory of evolution globally and destroying the conditions that make human life possible. It is an irreversible threat to the persistence of civilization and the livability of future environments for H. sapiens. Instant corrective actions are required.
  [Ceballos, G. and Ehrlich, P. (2023) Mutilation of the tree of life via mass extinction of animal genera, PNAS. Available at: https://www.pnas.org/doi/full/10.1073/pnas.2306987120. ]
• Neonicotinoids: Still present in farmland birds despite their ban
  Neonicotinoids (neonics) are the most widely used insecticides worldwide and are considered to be of low risk to non-target organisms such as vertebrates. Further, they are reported to be rapidly excreted and metabolized, reducing their potential toxicity. Nevertheless, growing evidence of adverse effects of neonics on farmland bird species raise questions about the purported harmless nature of these pesticides. We attempted to search for pesticide residues in species of different trophic levels and at different life stages, by using multiple bird monitoring programs on a Long-Term Socio-Ecological Research (LTSER) platform. Three passerine birds-the blackbird (Turdus merula), cirl bunting (Emberiza cirlus), and common nightingale (Luscinia megarhynchos)-that feed on seeds and invertebrates were monitored during their reproductive period, and the grey partridge (Perdix perdix) that feeds on seeds was monitored during its wintering period. We also monitored chicks of an apex predator-the Montagu's harrier (Circus pygargus)-that preys mostly upon common voles but also upon insects. We found that the birds' blood samples showed presence of residues of five neonics: three banned since 2018 in France-clothianidin, thiacloprid, and thiamethoxam-and two-dinotefuran and nitenpyram-used for veterinary purposes only. While none of these neonics was detected in blackbirds, all were present in grey partridges. Clothianidin was detected in all species, except blackbirds. Concentrations of the three banned neonics were similar or higher than concentrations found in birds monitored elsewhere before the ban. These findings raise questions about the persistence of neonics within the environment and the mode of exposure to wild fauna. Future investigations on the sublethal effects of these neonics on life-history traits of these farmland birds may help in providing a better understanding of the effects of exposure of bird populations to these insecticides, and also to the consequent effect on human health.
  [Fuentes, E., Gaffard, A., Rodrigues, A., Millet, M., Bretagnolle, V., Moreau, J. and Monceau, K., 2023. Chemosphere, 321, p.138091.]
• Overcoming the coupled climate and biodiversity crises and their societal impacts
  Earth’s biodiversity and human societies face pollution, overconsumption of natural resources, urbanization, demographic shifts, social and economic inequalities, and habitat loss, many of which are exacerbated by climate change. Here, we review links among climate, biodiversity, and society and develop a roadmap toward sustainability. These include limiting warming to 1.5°C and effectively conserving and restoring functional ecosystems on 30 to 50% of land, freshwater, and ocean “scapes.” We envision a mosaic of interconnected protected and shared spaces, including intensively used spaces, to strengthen self-sustaining biodiversity, the capacity of people and nature to adapt to and mitigate climate change, and nature’s contributions to people. Fostering interlinked human, ecosystem, and planetary health for a livable future urgently requires bold implementation of transformative policy interventions through interconnected institutions, governance, and social systems from local to global levels.
  [Pörtner, H. et al. (2023) Overcoming the coupled climate and biodiversity crises and their societal impacts, Science. Available at: https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abl4881. ]
• Pesticide contamination of bird species from Doñana National Park (southwestern Spain): Temporal trends (1999-2021) and reproductive impacts
  Doñana National Park (DNP) is a protected area renowned for hosting a wide variety of birds. However, the agricultural practices in its surroundings might cause pesticide contamination of the park biota. This work aimed to assess temporal trends of a wide variety of pesticides, including organochlorine (OCPs), organophosphate (OPPs) and pyrethroid (PYRs) pesticides, in bird eggs collected for more than twenty years (1999-2021) in DNP. Twenty-six pesticides were detected, being 4,4'-DDE the most frequently detected and also the one with the highest concentrations (up to 2.55 μg g-1 ww), exceeding in some cases the values usually reported to cause detrimental health and reproductive effects in avian species. An overall decreasing trend of OCPs was observed. In contrast, an apparent increase in PYRs was detected from 2013 onwards, especially for fenvalerate, whose median concentration was 3-5 orders of magnitude higher in the most recent samples. Moreover, other pesticides such as oxadiazon, oxyfluorfen and fenitrothion were first detected in 2021 samples. Finally, two variables estimating the cumulative impact of pesticides significantly decreased the breeding performance of a top predator such as the booted eagle. Therefore, it is essential to control the use of pesticides in the agricultural practices surrounding DNP and to study their potential negative impact on the bird populations breeding in this protected area.
  [Peris, A., Baos, R., Martínez, A., Sergio, F., Hiraldo, F. and Eljarrat, E., Available at SSRN 4312955.]
• Pesticides and Parabens Contaminating Aquatic Environment: Acute and Sub-Chronic Toxicity towards Early-Life Stages of Freshwater Fish and Amphibians
  Pesticides and personal care products are two very important groups of contaminants posing a threat to the aquatic environment and the organisms living in it.. Therefore, this study aimed to describe the effects of widely used pesticides and parabens on aquatic non-target biota such as fish (using model organisms Danio rerio and Cyprinus carpio) and amphibians (using model organism Xenopus laevis) using a wide range of endpoints. The first part of the experiment was focused on the embryonal toxicity of three widely used pesticides (metazachlor, prochloraz, and 4-chloro-2-methyl phenoxy acetic acid) and three parabens (methylparaben, propylparaben, and butylparaben) with D. rerio, C. carpio, and X. laevis embryos. An emphasis was placed on using mostly sub-lethal concentrations that are partially relevant to the environmental concentrations of the substances studied. In the second part of the study, an embryo-larval toxicity test with C. carpio was carried out with prochloraz using concentrations 0.1, 1, 10, 100, and 1000 µg/L. The results of both parts of the study show that even the low, environmentally relevant concentrations of the chemicals tested are often able to affect the expression of genes that play either a prominent role in detoxification and sex hormone production or indicate cell stress or, in case of prochloraz, to induce genotoxicity.
  [Medkova, D., Hollerova, A., Riesova, B., Blahova, J., Hodkovicova, N., Marsalek, P., Doubkova, V., Weiserova, Z., Mares, J., Faldyna, M. and Tichy, F., 2023. Toxics, 11(4), p.333.]
• Predicting the environmental fates of emerging contaminants: Synergistic effects in ozone reactions of nitrogen-containing alkenes
  While nitro and amino alkenes are common in pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and munitions, their environmental fates are not well known. Ozone is a ubiquitous atmospheric oxidant for alkenes, but the synergistic effects of nitrogen-containing groups on the reactions have not been measured. The kinetics and products of ozonolysis of a series of model compounds with different combinations of these functional groups have been measured in the condensed phase using stopped-flow and mass spectrometry methods. Rate constants span about six orders of magnitude with activation energies ranging from 4.3 to 28.2 kJ mol-1. Vinyl nitro groups substantially decrease the reactivity, while amino groups have the opposite effect. The site of the initial ozone attack is highly structure dependent, consistent with local ionization energy calculations. The reaction of the neonicotinoid pesticide nitenpyram, which forms toxic N-nitroso compounds, was consistent with model compounds, confirming the utility of model compounds for assessing environmental fates of these emerging contaminants.
  [Wang, X., Wang, W., Wingen, L.M., Perraud, V., Ezell, M.J., Gable, J., Poulos, T.L. and Finlayson-Pitts, B.J., 2023. Science Advances, 9(9), p.eade9609.]
• The effects of glyphosate, pure or in herbicide formulation, on bumble bees and their gut microbial communities
  The widespread use of glyphosate-based formulations to eliminate unwanted vegetation has increased concerns regarding their effects on non-target organisms, such as honey bees and their gut microbial communities. These effects have been associated with both glyphosate and co-formulants, but it is still unknown whether they translate to other bee species. In this study, we tested whether glyphosate, pure or in herbicide formulation, can affect the gut microbiota and survival rates of the eastern bumble bee, Bombus impatiens. We performed mark-recapture experiments with bumble bee workers from four different commercial colonies, which were exposed to field relevant concentrations of glyphosate or a glyphosate-based formulation (0.01 mM to 1 mM). After a 5-day period of exposure, we returned the bees to their original colonies, and they were sampled at days 0, 3 and 7 post-exposure to investigate changes in microbial community and microbiota resilience by 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing and quantitative PCR. We found that exposure to glyphosate, pure or in herbicide formulation, reduced the relative abundance of a beneficial bee gut bacterium, Snodgrassella, in bees from two of four colonies when compared to control bees at day 0 post-exposure, but this reduction became non-significant at days 3 and 7 post-exposure, suggesting microbiota resilience. We did not find significant changes in total bacteria between control and exposed bees. Moreover, we observed an overall trend in decreased survival rates in bumble bees exposed to 1 mM herbicide formulation during the 7-day post-exposure period, suggesting a potential negative effect of this formulation on bumble bees.
  [Motta, E.V. and Moran, N.A., 2023. Science of The Total Environment, 872, p.162102.]
• Trophodynamics of halogenated organic pollutants (HOPs) in aquatic food webs
  Halogenated organic pollutants (HOPs) represent hazardous and persistent compounds characterized by their capacity to accumulate within organisms and endure in the environment. These substances are frequently transmitted through aquatic food webs, engendering potential hazards to ecosystems and human well-being. The trophodynamics of HOPs in aquatic food webs has garnered worldwide attention within the scientific community. Despite comprehensive research endeavors, the prevailing trajectory of HOPs, whether inclined toward biomagnification or biodilution within global aquatic food webs, remains unresolved. Furthermore, while numerous studies have probed the variables influencing the trophic magnification factor (TMF), the paramount determinant remains elusive. Collating a compendium of pertinent literature encompassing TMFs from the Web of Science between 1994 and 2023, our analysis underscores the disparities in attention accorded to legacy HOPs compared to emerging counterparts. A discernible pattern of biomagnification characterizes the behavior of HOPs within aquatic food webs. Geographically, the northern hemisphere, including Asia, Europe, and North America, has demonstrated greater biomagnification than its southern hemisphere counterparts. Utilizing a boosted regression tree (BRT) approach, we reveal that the food web length and type emerge as pivotal determinants influencing TMFs. This review provides a valuable basis for gauging ecological and health risks, thereby facilitating the formulation of robust standards for managing aquatic environments.
  [Xie, J. et al. (2023) Trophodynamics of halogenated organic pollutants (HOPs) in aquatic food webs, Science of The Total Environment. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0048969723050519. ]
• Vegans, vegetarians, fish-eaters and meat-eaters in the UK show discrepant environmental impacts
  Modelled dietary scenarios often fail to reflect true dietary practice and do not account for variation in the environmental burden of food due to sourcing and production methods. Here we link dietary data from a sample of 55,504 vegans, vegetarians, fish-eaters and meat-eaters with food-level data on greenhouse gas emissions, land use, water use, eutrophication risk and potential biodiversity loss from a review of 570 life-cycle assessments covering more than 38,000 farms in 119 countries. Our results include the variation in food production and sourcing that is observed in the review of life-cycle assessments. All environmental indicators showed a positive association with amounts of animal-based food consumed. Dietary impacts of vegans were 25.1% (95% uncertainty interval, 15.1–37.0%) of high meat-eaters (≥100 g total meat consumed per day) for greenhouse gas emissions, 25.1% (7.1–44.5%) for land use, 46.4% (21.0–81.0%) for water use, 27.0% (19.4–40.4%) for eutrophication and 34.3% (12.0–65.3%) for biodiversity. At least 30% differences were found between low and high meat-eaters for most indicators. Despite substantial variation due to where and how food is produced, the relationship between environmental impact and animal-based food consumption is clear and should prompt the reduction of the latter.
  [Scarborough, P. et al. (2023) Vegans, vegetarians, fish-eaters and meat-eaters in the UK show Discrepant Environmental impacts, Nature Food. Available at: https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-023-00795-w?fromPaywallRec=false. ]
• Soil protists: An untapped microbial resource of agriculture and environmental importance
  Protists are essential components of soil biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. They play a vital role in the microbial food web as consumers of bacteria, fungi, and other small eukaryotes and are also involved in maintaining soil fertility and plant productivity. Protists also contribute to regulating and shaping the bacterial community in terrestrial ecosystems via specific prey spectra. They play a role in plant growth promotion and plant health improvement, mostly via nutrient cycling, grazing, and the activation of bacterial genes required for plant growth and phytopathogen suppression. Thus, protists may prove to be a useful inoculant as biofertilizer and biocontrol agent. They can also be applied as model organisms as bioindicators of soil health. Despite their usefulness and essentiality, they are often forgotten and under-researched components of the soil microbiome, as most of our research focuses on bacteria and fungi. In this review, we provide an overview of the role of protists in plant productivity and plant health management and in shifts in soil bacterial community composition, as well as their roles as bioindicator. We also discuss the perspectives of knowledge gaps and future prospects to further improve soil biology. More research in soil protistology will provide insights into sustainable agriculture and environmental health alongside the study of bacteria and fungi.
  [Chandarana, K. and Amaresan, N. (2022) Soil protists: An untapped microbial resource of agriculture and environmental importance, Pedosphere. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1002016021600668. ]
• Agricultural intensification and climate change are rapidly decreasing insect biodiversity
  Major declines in insect biomass and diversity, reviewed here, have become obvious and well documented since the end of World War II. Here, we conclude that the spread and intensification of agriculture during the past half century is directly related to these losses. In addition, many areas, including tropical mountains, are suffering serious losses because of climate change as well. Crops currently occupy about 11% of the world’s land surface, with active grazing taking place over an additional 30%. The industrialization of agriculture during the second half of the 20th century involved farming on greatly expanded scales, monoculturing, the application of increasing amounts of pesticides and fertilizers, and the elimination of interspersed hedgerows and other wildlife habitat fragments, all practices that are destructive to insect and other biodiversity in and near the fields. Some of the insects that we are destroying, including pollinators and predators of crop pests, are directly beneficial to the crops. In the tropics generally, natural vegetation is being destroyed rapidly and often replaced with export crops such as oil palm and soybeans. To mitigate the effects of the Sixth Mass Extinction event that we have caused and are experiencing now, the following will be necessary: a stable (and almost certainly lower) human population, sustainable levels of consumption, and social justice that empowers the less wealthy people and nations of the world, where the vast majority of us live, will be necessary.
  [Raven, P. and Wagner, D. (2021) Agricultural intensification and climate change are rapidly decreasing insect biodiversity, PNAS. Available at: https://www.pnas.org/doi/abs/10.1073/pnas.2304663120. ]
• Effects of Pesticides on Biodiversity and Climate Change
  Pesticides are the biological pollutants, which are being used by the man to kill the pests for increasing the yield of many crops and insect vectors to control the spread of disease. The tremendous use of pesticides has caused severe health hazards to organisms including human beings due to climate change. Excessive use of pesticides may lead to the destruction of biodiversity. Many birds, aquatic organisms and animals are under the threat of harmful pesticides for their survival. The pesticides effects can be lessen by organizing awareness program among the farmers, special training to them regarding consequences of pesticides, their screening and monitoring methods.
  [Chaudhary, V., Arya, S. and Singh, P. (2021) Effects of Pesticides on Biodiversity and Climate Change, International Journal on Environmental Sciences. Available at: https://doi.org/10.53390/ijes.v12i2.1. ]
• Food system impacts on biodiversity loss
  — Biodiversity loss is accelerating around the world. The global rate of species extinction today is orders of magnitude higher than the average rate over the past 10 million years. — The global food system is the primary driver of this trend. Over the past 50 years, the conversion of natural ecosystems for crop production or pasture has been the principal cause of habitat loss, in turn reducing biodiversity. — Our food system has been shaped over past decades by the ‘cheaper food’ paradigm. Policies and economic structures have aimed to produce ever more food at ever lower cost. Intensified agricultural production degrades soils and ecosystems, driving down the productive capacity of land and necessitating even more intensive food production to keep pace with demand. Growing global consumption of cheaper calories and resource-intensive foods aggravates these pressures. — Current food production depends heavily on the use of inputs such as fertilizer, pesticides, energy, land and water, and on unsustainable practices such as monocropping and heavy tilling. This has reduced the variety of landscapes and habitats, threatening or destroying the breeding, feeding and/or nesting of birds, mammals, insects and microbial organisms, and crowding out many native plant species. — As a major contributor to global greenhouse gas emissions, our food system is also driving climate change, which further degrades habitats and causes species to disperse to new locations. In turn, this brings new species into contact and competition with each other, and creates new opportunities for the emergence of infectious disease. — Without reform of our food system, biodiversity loss will continue to accelerate. Further destruction of ecosystems and habitats will threaten our ability to sustain human populations.
  [Benton, T. et al. (2021) Food system impacts on Biodiversity loss, Energy, Environment and Resources Programme. Available at: https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/2021-02/2021-02-03-food-system-biodiversity-loss-benton-et-al_0.pdf. ]
• Greater stability of carbon capture in species-rich natural forests compared to species-poor plantations
  Tree plantations and forest restoration are leading strategies for enhancing terrestrial carbon (C) sequestration and mitigating climate change. While it is well established that species-rich natural forests offer superior C sequestering benefits relative to short-rotation commercial monoculture plantations, differences in rates of C capture and storage between longer-lived plantations (commercial or non-commercial) and natural forests remain unclear. Using a natural experiment in the Western Ghats of India, where late-20th century conservation laws prohibited timber extraction from monodominant plantations and natural forests within nature reserves, we assessed forests and plantations for aboveground C storage and the magnitude and temporal stability of rates of photosynthetic C capture (gross primary production). Specifically, we tested the hypothesis that species-rich forests show greater temporal stability of C capture, and are more resistant to drought, than monodominant plantations. Carbon stocks in monodominant teak (Tectona grandis) and Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.) plantations were 30%–50% lower than in natural evergreen forests, but differed little from moist-deciduous forests. Plantations had 4%–9% higher average C capture rates (estimated using the Enhanced Vegetation Index–EVI) than natural forests during wet seasons, but up to 29% lower C capture during dry seasons across the 2000–18 period. In both seasons, the rate of C capture by plantations was less stable across years, and decreased more during drought years (i.e. lower resistance to drought), compared to forests. Thus, even as certain monodominant plantations could match natural forests for C capture and storage potential, plantations are unlikely to match the stability–and hence reliability–of C capture exhibited by forests, particularly in the face of increasing droughts and other climatic perturbations. Promoting natural forest regeneration and/or multi-species native tree plantations instead of plantation monocultures could therefore benefit climate change mitigation efforts, while offering valuable co-benefits for biodiversity conservation and other ecosystem services.
  [Osuri, A. et al. (2020) Greater stability of carbon capture in species-rich natural forests compared to species-poor plantations, Environmental Research Letters. Available at: https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/ab5f75. ]
• How do pesticides affect bats? – A brief review of recent publications
  Increased agricultural production has been increased use of pesticides worldwide, which poses a threat to both human and environmental health. Recent studies suggest that several non-target organisms, from bees to mammals, show a wide variety of toxic effects of pesticides exposure, including impaired behavior, development and reproduction. Among mammals, bats are usually a neglected taxon among ecotoxicological studies, although they play important ecological and economical roles in forest ecosystems and agriculture through to seed dispersal and insect population control. Considering their wide variety of food habits, bats are exposed to environmental pollutants through food or water contamination, or through direct skin contact in their roosting areas. In order to better understand the risk posed by pesticides to bats populations, we compiled studies that investigated the main toxicological effects of pesticides in bats, aiming at contributing to discussion about the environmental risks associated with the use of pesticides.
  [Oliveira, J.M. et al. (2020) How do pesticides affect bats? – A brief review of recent publications, Brazilian Journal of Biology. Available at: https://www.scielo.br/j/bjb/a/tnNtGd6GfzQFz6yNXNdzJPw/?lang=en. ]
• How fossil fuel-derived pesticides and plastics harm health, biodiversity, and the climate
  Three global challenges menace survival as we know it: climate change, loss of biodiversity, and chemical pollution (including endocrine-disrupting chemicals [EDCs]). These threats are more strongly interlinked than previously thought by their common origins in fossil fuels such as coal, oil, or gas, including that derived from fracking. It is well established that accumulation of anthropogenic greenhouse gases (CO2, methane, and N2O) in the atmosphere is the main driver of climate change. However, policy makers and the general public need to better appreciate the links of each of these threats to life.
  The foremost threats are chemical pollution, plastic pollution, and loss of biodiversity, as each is largely linked to the fossil fuel industry. The argument is that not only can these threats be averted, but also by reducing our dependence on fossil fuel usage we can simultaneously mitigate and eventually reverse the current climate crisis and improve environmental wellbeing and human health. If we are to embrace these economic transitions which are so urgently required, a deeper understanding of the interlinked mechanisms is needed. These outcomes can be achieved by investing in alternative energies—eg, solar, wind, or geothermic. Development of these renewable energy sources will in turn substantially reduce biodiversity loss, chemical pollution, and plastic pollution.
  Although not all chemicals are EDCs, overexploitation of fossil fuels can be linked to atmospheric and chemical pollution, and their closely linked corollary—endocrine disruption. Food contact plastics, some pesticides, flame retardants, perfluorinated compounds, and other endocrine-disrupting compounds are derived from oil, coal, or gas. Moreover, shale gas, obtained by fracking, produces multiple EDCs.
  [Demeneix, B. (2020) How fossil fuel-derived pesticides and plastics harm health, biodiversity, and the climate, The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology. Available at: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/landia/article/PIIS2213-8587(20)30116-9/fulltext. ]
• Neonicotinoids pose undocumented threats to food webs
  
  One of the main lessons that emerged from Silent Spring (1) is that we overuse pesticides at our own peril because human and natural environments are unquestionably linked. It is time to revisit these lessons given current use patterns of neonicotinoid insecticides.
   
  Neonicotinoids pose broader risks to biodiversity and food webs than previously recognized. Serious efforts must be made to decrease the scale of their use. 
   
  Since their introduction in the early 1990s, neonicotinoids have become the most widely used insecticides in the world. Their toxicity allows less active ingredients to be used and, compared with older classes of insecticides, they appear to have relatively low toxicity to vertebrates, particularly mammals (2). Neonicotinoids have been repeatedly called “perfect” for use in crop protection (2).
   
  Yet recent research calls this perfection into doubt as neonicotinoids have become widespread environmental contaminants causing unexpected nontarget effects. In particular, researchers have found that neonicotinoids can move from treated plants to pollinators and from plants to pests to natural enemies. Worse, transmission through simple food chains portends widespread, undocumented transmission into entire food webs. We believe that neonicotinoids pose broader risks to biodiversity and food webs than previously recognized. Although further research is needed to document the ecosystem-wide transmission and consequences of neonicotinoids to establish their true costs and benefits, serious efforts must be made to decrease the scale of their use.
  
  [Frank, S.D. and Tooker, J.F. (2020) ‘Neonicotinoids pose undocumented threats to food webs’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(37), pp. 22609–22613. doi:10.1073/pnas.2017221117. ]
• Global agricultural productivity is threatened by increasing pollinator dependence without a parallel increase in crop diversification
  The global increase in the proportion of land cultivated with pollinator-dependent crops implies increased reliance on pollination services. Yet agricultural practices themselves can profoundly affect pollinator supply and pollination. Extensive monocultures are associated with a limited pollinator supply and reduced pollination, whereas agricultural diversification can enhance both. Therefore, areas where agricultural diversity has increased, or at least been maintained, may better sustain high and more stable productivity of pollinator-dependent crops. Given that >80% of all crops depend, to varying extents, on insect pollination, a global increase in agricultural pollinator dependence over recent decades might have led to a concomitant increase in agricultural diversification. We evaluated whether an increase in the area of pollinator-dependent crops has indeed been associated with an increase in agricultural diversity, measured here as crop diversity, at the global, regional, and country scales for the period 1961–2016. Globally, results show a relatively weak and decelerating rise in agricultural diversity over time that was largely decoupled from the strong and continually increasing trend in agricultural dependency on pollinators. At regional and country levels, there was no consistent relationship between temporal changes in pollinator dependence and crop diversification. Instead, our results show heterogeneous responses in which increasing pollinator dependence for some countries and regions has been associated with either an increase or a decrease in agricultural diversity. Particularly worrisome is a rapid expansion of pollinator-dependent oilseed crops in several countries of the Americas and Asia that has resulted in a decrease in agricultural diversity. In these regions, reliance on pollinators is increasing, yet agricultural practices that undermine pollination services are expanding. Our analysis has thereby identified world regions of particular concern where environmentally damaging practices associated with large-scale, industrial agriculture threaten key ecosystem services that underlie productivity, in addition to other benefits provided by biodiversity.
  [Aizen, M. et al. (2019) Global agricultural productivity is threatened by increasing pollinator dependence without a parallel increase in crop diversification, Global Change Biology. Available at: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/gcb.14736. ]
• The insect apocalypse, and why it matters
  The majority of conservation efforts and public attention are focused on large, charismatic mammals and birds such as tigers, pandas and penguins, yet the bulk of animal life, whether measured by biomass, numerical abundance or numbers of species, consists of invertebrates such as insects. Arguably, these innumerable little creatures are far more important for the functioning of ecosystems than their furry or feathered brethren, but until recently we had few long-term data on their population trends. Recent studies from Germany and Puerto Rico suggest that insects may be in a state of catastrophic population collapse: the German data describe a 76% decline in biomass over 26 years, while the Puerto Rican study estimates a decline of between 75% and 98% over 35 years. Corroborative evidence, for example from butterflies in Europe and California (which both show slightly less dramatic reductions in abundance), suggest that these declines are not isolated. The causes are much debated, but almost certainly include habitat loss, chronic exposure to pesticides, and climate change. The consequences are clear; insects are integral to every terrestrial food web, being food for numerous birds, bats, reptiles, amphibians and fish, and performing vital roles such as pollination, pest control and nutrient recycling. Terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems will collapse without insects. These studies are a warning that we may have failed to appreciate the full scale and pace of environmental degradation caused by human activities in the Anthropocene.
  [Goulson, D. (2019) The insect apocalypse, and why it matters, Current Biology. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982219307961. ]
• I Ke Ēwe ʻĀina o Ke Kupuna: Hawaiian Ancestral Crops in Perspective
  Indigenous crops, tremendously valuable both for food security and cultural survival, are experiencing a resurgence in Hawaiʻi. These crops have been historically valued by agricultural researchers as genetic resources for breeding, while cultural knowledge, names, stories and practices persisted outside of formal educational and governmental institutions. In recent years, and following conflicts ignited over university research on and patenting of kalo (Hāloa, Colocasia esculenta), a wave of restoration activities around indigenous crop diversity, cultivation, and use has occurred through largely grassroots efforts. We situate four crops in Hawaiian cosmologies, review and compare the loss and recovery of names and cultivars, and describe present efforts to restore traditional crop biodiversity focusing on kalo, ʻuala (Ipomoea batatas), kō (Saccharum officinarum), and ʻawa (Piper methysticum). The cases together and particularly the challenges of kalo and ‘awa suggest that explicitly recognizing the sacred role such plants hold in indigenous worldviews, centering the crops’ biocultural significance, provides a foundation for better collaboration across multiple communities and institutions who work with these species. Furthermore, a research agenda that pursues a decolonizing approach and draws from more participatory methods can provide a path forward towards mutually beneficial exchange among research, indigenous, and farmer communities. We outline individual and institutional responsibilities relevant to work with indigenous crops and communities and offer this as a step towards reconciliation, understanding, and reciprocity that can ultimately work to create abundance through the restoration of ancestral crop cultivar diversity.
  [Kagawa-Viviani, A. et al. (2018) I Ke Ēwe ʻĀina o Ke Kupuna: Hawaiian Ancestral Crops in Perspective, Sustainability. Available at: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/10/12/4607. ]
• Impacts of neonicotinoid use on long-term population changes in wild bees in England
  Wild bee declines have been ascribed in part to neonicotinoid insecticides. While short-term laboratory studies on commercially bred species (principally honeybees and bumblebees) have identified sub-lethal effects, there is no strong evidence linking these insecticides to losses of the majority of wild bee species. We relate 18 years of UK national wild bee distribution data for 62 species to amounts of neonicotinoid use in oilseed rape. Using a multi-species dynamic Bayesian occupancy analysis, we find evidence of increased population extinction rates in response to neonicotinoid seed treatment use on oilseed rape. Species foraging on oilseed rape benefit from the cover of this crop, but were on average three times more negatively affected by exposure to neonicotinoids than non-crop foragers. Our results suggest that sub-lethal effects of neonicotinoids could scale up to cause losses of bee biodiversity. Restrictions on neonicotinoid use may reduce population declines.
  [Woodcock, B.A. et al. (2016) Impacts of neonicotinoid use on long-term population changes in wild bees in England, Nature Communications. Available at: https://www.nature.com/articles/ncomms12459. ]
• Milkweed loss in agricultural fields because of herbicide use: effect on the monarch butterfly population
  1. The size of the Mexican overwintering population of monarch butterflies has decreased over the last decade. Approximately half of these butterflies come from the U.S. Midwest where larvae feed on common milkweed. There has been a large decline in milkweed in agricultural fields in the Midwest over the last decade. This loss is coincident with the increased use of glyphosate herbicide in conjunction with increased planting of genetically modified (GM) glyphosate-tolerant corn (maize) and soybeans (soya).

  2. We investigate whether the decline in the size of the overwintering population can be attributed to a decline in monarch production owing to a loss of milkweeds in agricultural fields in the Midwest. We estimate Midwest annual monarch production using data on the number of monarch eggs per milkweed plant for milkweeds in different habitats, the density of milkweeds in different habitats, and the area occupied by those habitats on the landscape.

  3. We estimate that there has been a 58% decline in milkweeds on the Midwest landscape and an 81% decline in monarch production in the Midwest from 1999 to 2010. Monarch production in the Midwest each year was positively correlated with the size of the subsequent overwintering population in Mexico. Taken together, these results strongly suggest that a loss of agricultural milkweeds is a major contributor to the decline in the monarch population.

  4. The smaller monarch population size that has become the norm will make the species more vulnerable to other conservation threats.
  [Pleasants, J. and Oberhauser, K. (2012) Milkweed loss in agricultural fields because of herbicide use: effect on the monarch butterfly population, Insect Conservation and Diversity. Available at: https://resjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1752-4598.2012.00196.x. ]

• The effects of organic agriculture on biodiversity and abundance: A meta-analysis
  The efficiency of agricultural subsidy programmes for preserving biodiversity and improving the environment has been questioned in recent years. Organic farming operates without pesticides, herbicides and inorganic fertilizers, and usually with a more diverse crop rotation. It has been suggested that this system enhances biodiversity in agricultural landscapes. We analysed the effects of organic farming on species richness and abundance using meta‐analysis of literature published before December 2002. Organic farming usually increases species richness, having on average 30% higher species richness than conventional farming systems. However, the results were variable among studies, and 16% of them actually showed a negative effect of organic farming on species richness. We therefore divided the data into different organism groups and according to the spatial scale of the study. Birds, insects and plants usually showed an increased species richness in organic farming systems. However, the number of studies was low in most organism groups (range 2–19) and there was significant heterogeneity between studies. The effect of organic farming was largest in studies performed at the plot scale. In studies at the farm scale, when organic and conventional farms were matched according to landscape structure, the effect was significant but highly heterogeneous. On average, organisms were 50% more abundant in organic farming systems, but the results were highly variable between studies and organism groups. Birds, predatory insects, soil organisms and plants responded positively to organic farming, while non‐predatory insects and pests did not. The positive effects of organic farming on abundance were prominent at the plot and field scales, but not for farms in matched landscapes. Synthesis and applications. Our results show that organic farming often has positive effects on species richness and abundance, but that its effects are likely to differ between organism groups and landscapes. We suggest that positive effects of organic farming on species richness can be expected in intensively managed agricultural landscapes, but not in small‐scale landscapes comprising many other biotopes as well as agricultural fields. Measures to preserve and enhance biodiversity should be more landscape‐ and farm‐specific than is presently the case.
  [Bengtsson, J., Ahnstrom, J. and Weibull, A. (2005) The effects of organic agriculture on biodiversity and abundance: A meta-analysis, Journal of Applied Ecology. Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228008559_The_effects_of_organic_agriculture_on_biodiversity_and_abundance_A_meta-analysis. ]
• Habitat management to conserve natural enemies of arthropod pests in agriculture
  Many agroecosystems are unfavorable environments for natural enemies due to high levels of disturbance. Habitat management, a form of conservation biological control, is an ecologically based approach aimed at favoring natural enemies and enhancing biological control in agricultural systems. The goal of habitat management is to create a suitable ecological infrastructure within the agricultural landscape to provide resources such as food for adult natural enemies, alternative prey or hosts, and shelter from adverse conditions. These resources must be integrated into the landscape in a way that is spatially and temporally favorable to natural enemies and practical for producers to implement. The rapidly expanding literature on habitat management is reviewed with attention to practices for favoring predators and parasitoids, implementation of habitat management, and the contributions of modeling and ecological theory to this developing area of conservation biological control. The potential to integrate the goals of habitat management for natural enemies and nature conservation is discussed.
  [Landis, D., Wratten, S. and Gurr, G. (2000) Habitat management to conserve natural enemies of arthropod pests in agriculture, Annual Review of Entomology. Available at: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10761575/. ]