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Pesticide-Induced Diseases: Cancer

Bladder Cancer ● Bone Cancer ● Brain Cancer ● Cervical Cancer ● Colorecatal Cancer ● Eye Cancer ● Gallbladder Cancer ● Kidney/Renal Cancer ● Larynx Cancer ● Leukemia ● Lip Cancer ● Liver/Hepatic Cancer ● Lung Cancer ● Lymphoma ● Melanoma ● Mouth Cancer ● Multiple Myeloma ● Neuroblastoma ● Oesophageal Cancer ● Ovarian Cancer ● Pancreatic Cancer ● Prostate Cancer ● Soft Tissue Sarcoma ● Stomach Cancer ● Sinonasal Cancer ● Testicular Cancer ● Thyroid Cancer ● Uteran Cancer

The link between pesticides and cancer has long been a concern. While agriculture has traditionally been tied to pesticide-related illnesses, 19 of 30 commonly used lawn pesticides and 28 of 40 commonly used school pesticides are linked to cancer. Even with the growing body of evidence linking environmental exposures to cancer in recent years, a report released May 6, 2010 by the President’s Cancer Panel finds that the true burden of environmentally-induced cancer is greatly underestimated. The Panel’s report, Reducing Environmental Cancer Risk: What We Can Do Now, concludes that while environmental exposure is not a new front on the war on cancer, the grievous harm from carcinogenic chemical use has not been addressed adequately by the nation’s cancer program.

Bladder Cancer

• Cancer among farmers in central Italy
  A case-referent study of Italian farmers finds a possible relationship between fruit crops and colon and bladder cancer.
  [Forastiere, F, et al. 1993. Scand J Work Environ Health 19(6):382-389.]
• Heterocyclic aromatic amine pesticide use and human cancer risk: results form the U.S. Agricultural Health Study
  A prospective cohort study of the Agricultural Health Study evaluated imazethapyr, a heterocyclic aromatic amine herbicide, finding significant trend in risk with increasing lifetime exposure for bladder cancer, limited to proximal cancers.
  [Koutros, S., et al. 2009. Int J Cancer 124(5):1206-1212.]
• Geographical differences of cancer incidence in Costa Rica in relation to environmental and occupational pesticide exposure
  A study in Costa Rica finds heavy pesticide use in rural counties is associated with an increase risk for bladder cancer in males (OR 1.71).
  [Wesseling, C., et al. 1999. International Journal of Epidemiology 28:365-374.]

Bone Cancer

• Geographical differences of cancer incidence in Costa Rica in relation to environmental and occupational pesticide exposure
  A study in Costa Rica finds heavy pesticide use in rural counties is associated with an increase risk for bone cancer in males (OR 1.81).
  [Wesseling, C., et al. 1999. International Journal of Epidemiology 28:365-374.
• Occupational factors and risk of adult bone sarcomas: a multicentric case-control study in Europe
  A nuliticentric case-control study in 7 European countries finds that individuals that have ever used pesticides have over a two-fold increase risk of bone sarcoma (OR 2.33), yet the study finds that duration of use of pesticides showend no increase trend in the risk.
  [Merietti, F., et al. 2006. Int J Cancer 118(3):721-727.]
• Risk of childhood cancers associated with residence in agriculturally intense areas in the United States
  An ecological study analyzing incidence data from U.S. children ages 0-14 years diagnosed with cancer between 1995 and 2001 and residence in a county with agricultural activity finds an elevated risk for malignant bone tumors (OR 2.3) and for subtype osteosarcoma (OR 2.7) at high agricultural activity (greater than 60% of county acreage devoted to farming). Also linked to Ewing’s sarcoma (OR 4.3) at high agricultural activity and for oat crop acreage and Ewing’s (OR 2.3)
  [Carrozza, S.E., et al. 2008. Environ Health Perspect 116(4):559-565.]
• Ewing’s bone sarcoma, paternal occupational exposure, and other factors
  A study of Ewing’s bone sarcoma patients shows an elevated risk for children whose fathers are engaged in agricultural occupations during the period from six months prior to conception of the patient to the time of diagnosis (8.8 OR) and for children whose fathers had occupational exposure to herbicides, pesticides, or fertilizers (6.1 OR).
  [Holly, E.A., at al. 1992. Am J Epidemiol 135(2):122-129.]
• Parental occupational exposures and Ewing’s sarcoma
  A NIH case-control study finds that although exposure to pesticides is not significantly associated with Ewing’s sarcoma, a higtory of household pesticide extermination is associated with ES among boy aged 15 years or younger (OR 3.0).
  [Moore, L.E., et al. 2005. Int J Cancer 114(3):472-478.]

Brain Cancer

Childhood Brain Cancer

• Childhood brain tumors, residential insecticide exposure, and pesticide metabolism genes
  A population-based, case control study of California and Washington state born children ten years of age or younger and functional genetic polymorphisms and parents use of home insecticide treatments finds a strong interaction between insecticide exposure during childhood and chromosome genotype PON1-108T allele (OR 1.8) and FMO1-9536A (*6) allele (OR = 2.7), suggesting that exposure in childhood to insecticides in combination with a reduced ability to detoxify them increases risk of developing brain tumors.
  [Nielsen, S.S., et al. 2010. Childhood brain tumors, residential insecticide exposure, and pesticide metabolism genes. Environmental Health Perspectives 118(1):144-149]
• A case-control study of childhood brain tumors and fathers' hobbies: a Children's Oncology Group study.
  A case-control study evaluating parental risk factors for childhood brain tumors finds a significant association for home lawn care pesticide applications during pregnancy (OR 1.6) and after birth (OR 1.8) and thus pesticides may increase the risk of medulloblastoma and primitive neuroectodermal tumors in children.
  [Rosso, A.L., et al. 2008. Cancer Causes Control 19(10)1201-1207]
• The Upper Midwest Health Study: a case-control study of primary intracranial gliomas in farm and rural residents.
  A NIOSH population based case control study finds moving to a farm as an adolescent (between the ages of 11 and 20), rather than moving to a farm as an adult, is associated with a greater risk for gliomas.
  [Ruder, A.M., et al. 2006. J Agric Saf Health 12(4):255-274]
• Parental occupational exposure to pesticides and childhood brain cancer.
  A community-based case-control study of parental occupational pesticide exposure and childhood brain cancer finds a slightly elevated risk of astrocytoma for paternal exposure to insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides; a slightly elevated risk of primitive neuroectodermal tumors (PNET) for paternatal exposure to herbicides. The study also finds a small elevated risk for astrocytoma for maternal exposure to insecticides and non-agricultural fungicides.
  [Van Wijngaarden, E., et al. 2003. American Journal of Epidemiology 157(11):989-997]
• Farm-related exposures and childhood brain tumours in seven countries: results from the SEARCH International Brain Tumour Study.
  A population based, case control study finds that maternal exposure, during the 5 years proceeding the child’s birth, is related to childhood brain tumors, relative to maternal exposure to agricultural pesticides.
  [Efird, J.T., et al. 2003. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 17(2):201-211]
• Farm and animal exposures and pediatric brain tumors: results from the United States West Coast Childhood Brain Tumor Study.
  A National Cancer Institute sponsored population-based case-control finds that, although the numbers were small, mothers exposed to farm pesticides were more likely to have a child with a brain tumor.
  [Holly, E.A., et al. 1998. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 7(9):797-802]
• Household pesticides and risk of pediatric brain tumors
  Prenatal exposure to flea and tick pesticides significantly increased the risk for pediatric brain tumor, especially for children less than five years old at diagnosis. Prenantal risk is highest for mothers who prepared, applied, or cleaned up the products themselves. Sprays and fogger flea and tick products showed the most significant risk.
  [Pogoda, J.M. and Preston-Martin, S. 1997. Environmental Health Perspectives 105:1214-1220]
• Cancer in offspring of parents engaged in agricultural activities in Norway: incidence and risk factors in the farm environment.
  In a large cohort study in Norway, parental occupational agricultural use of pesticides is associated with childhood brain tumors (rate ratio (RR) 1.71) and more significantly with non-astrocytic neuroepithlial tumors (RR 3.37) in farmer’s offspring aged 0-14 years.
  [Kristensen, P., et al. 1996. Int J Cancer 65(1):39-50]
• Risk factors for astrocytic glioma and primitive neuroectodermal tumor of the brain in young children: a report from the Children's Cancer Group.
  A case-control study focusing on gestational exposures find elevated risks for primitive neuroectodermal tumor (PNET), one the of the most common subtypes of brain tumors in children, for mother’s residence on a farm during pregnancy and for the child’s residence on a farm for at least one year. Mothers of astrocytoma brain cancer cases were more likely than their controls to report weekly use of insect sprays and pesticides.
  [Bunin, G.R., et al. 1994. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers and Prevention 3:197-204]
• Incidence and risk factors for childhood brain tumors in the Ile de France.
  A case-control study in France coordinated by International Agency for Research on Cancer finds a statistically significant association for farm residence and home treated with pesticides for childhood brain tumors
  [Cordier, S., et al. 1994. Int J Cancer 59(6):776-782]
• Family pesticide use and childhood brain cancer.
  Studies show that children living in households where pesticides are used suffer elevated rates of brain cancer, for some age and pesticide specific exposures.
  [Davis, J., et al. 1993. Family pesticide use and childhood brain cancer. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 24:87-92]
• Parental occupation and intracranial neoplasms of childhood: results of a case-control interview study.
  A case-control study of childhood brain tumors finds paternal employment in agriculture is associated with excess risk.
  [Wilkins, J.R. and T. Sinks. 1990. Am J Epidemiol 132(2):275-292]
• Paternal occupation and brain cancer in offspring: a mortality-based case-control study
  A mortality-based case-control study of Ohio-born children who died from brain cancer looking at paternal occupation finds that case fathers are more likely than control fathers to have been employed, at the time of the child’s birth, in agriculture.
  [Wilkins, J.R. and Koutras, R.A. 1988. Am J Ind Med 14(3):299-318]
• Risk factors for brain tumors in children
  An exploratory case-control study in Baltimore, Maryland finds that more children with brain tumors and children with other cancers are found to have been exposed to insecticides than other children.
  [Gold, E., et al. 1979. American Journal of Epidemiology 109(3):309-319]

Adult Brain Cancer

• Occupational exposure to pesticides and risk of adult brain tumors.
  A hospital-based case-control study finds that woman with occupational herbicide exposure show an increased risk meningioma compared to woman who never used herbicides (OR 2.4), a significant trend for increasing risk with increasing years of herbicide exposure and increasing cumulative exposure.
  [Samanic, C.M., et al. 2008. American Journal of Epidemiology 167(8):976-985]
• Brain tumours and exposure to pesticides: a case-control study in southwestern France.
  A population-based case–control study in France finds that pesticides play a role in brain tumors for high levels of occupational exposures (OR 2.16), especially for gliomas (OR 3.21).
  [Provost, D., et al. 2007. Brain tumours and exposure to pesticides: a case-control study in southwestern France. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 64:509-514]
• Agricultural pesticide use and risk of glioma in Nebraska, United States
  In a population based case control study in eastern Nebraska, men living or working on a farm for at least 55 years is associated with an almost 4-fold increased risk of glioma . Among male farmers, the study finds an increase risk for glioma for those exposed to herbicides metribuzin and paraquat , insecticides bufencarb and chlorpyrifos and coumaphos.
  [Lee, W., et al. 2005. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 62(11):786-792]
• Occupational risk factors for brain cancer: a population-based case-control study in Iowa
  A population case-control study in Iowa finds a significant increased risk to a type of brain cancer called glioma for women employed in agriculture services or farming.
  [ Zheng, T., et al. 2001.Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 43(4): 333-340]
• Occupational Exposure to Carbofuran and the Incidence of Cancer in the Agricultural Health Study
  A geographical study looking at pesticide use and cancer incidence in Costa Rica finds that in areas of mainly coffee production there are elevated number of brain cancers, particularly for men; it also found that for rural counties with heavy pesticide use there is an association with an increase risk for brain cancer in females.
  [Wesseling, C., et al. 1999. International Journal of Epidemiology 28: 365-374]
• Brain cancer mortality among French farmers: the vineyard pesticide hypothesis.
  Mortality from brain cancer among vineyard farmers is higher than mortality for the overall population (standardized mortality ratio (SMR) 1.25)
  [Viel, J.F., et al. 1998. Brain cancer mortality among French farmers: the vineyard pesticide hypothesis. Arch Environ Health 53(1):65-70]
• Correlation analysis of pesticide use data and cancer incidence rates in California counties.
  An ecological study in California analyzing a cancer registry and statewide pesticide use reporting system finds a correlation between Hispanic males diagnosed with brain cancer and atrazine.
  [ Mills, P.K. 1998. Arch Environ Health 53(6):410-413]
• Prevalence of glioblastoma multiforme subjects with prior herbicide exposure.
  A descriptive study of glioblastoma multiforme in Arkansas diagnosed patients finds a link to their occupational exposure to herbicides.
  [Smith-Rooker, J.L., et al. 1992. J neurosci Nurs 24(5):260-264]
• A case-control study of brain gliomas and occupational exposure to chemical carcinogens: the risk to farmers.
  A case control study shows an increased risk for brain gliomas for farmers who reported the use of pesticides and fertilizers (RR 1.6) with a significant increased risk for those that used insecticides and fungicides (RR 2.0).
  [Musicco, M., et al. 1988. American Journal of Epidemiology 128(4):778-785]
• Mortality among white and nonwhite farmers in North Carolina, 1976-1978.
  A mortality study of North Carolinian farmers finds that although there was no increased mortality for whites, nonwhite farmers have an increased frequency of leukemia (proportional mortality ratios (PMR) 1.9)
  [Delzell, E., and Grufferman, S. 1985. Am J Epidemiol 121(3):391-402]
• Proportionate mortality study of golf course superintendents.
  A proportionate mortality study (PMR) of a cohort of 686 golf course superintendents finds an elevated number deaths from brain cancer (PMR 234).
  [Kross, B.C., et al. 1996. Am J Ind Med 29(5):501-506]
• Glioma and occupational exposure in Sweden, a case-control study.
  Although based on small numbers, a population based case-control study looking at occupational pesticide exposures finds an increased risk of glioma for men.
  [Rodvall, Y., et al. 1996. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 53:526-532]
• Cancer mortality in a cohort of rural licensed pesticide users in the province of Rome.
  Cancer mortality in a cohort of 2310 male licensed pesticide applicators in the 1970’s in rural Italy shows a statistically significant excess for brain cancer (standardized mortality ratio (SMR) 270).
  [Figa-Talamanca, I. et al. 1993. Int J Epidemiol 22(4):579-583]
• Lung cancer and other causes of death among licensed pesticide applicators.
  A cohort study of 3,827 white male licensed structural pest control workers in Florida finds excess of deaths for cancers of the brain.
  [Blair, A., et al. 1983. J Natl Cancer Inst 71(1):31-37]

Breast Cancer

• Occupational histories of cancer patients in a Canadian cancer treatment center and the generated hypothesis regarding breast cancer and farming
  A Canadian study of newly diagnosed breast cancer patients and woman with other cancers finds that women 55 years and younger who had ever farmed has a significantly increased risk of breast cancer than any other type of occupation.
  [Brophy, J., et al. 2002. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health 8(4):346-353.]
• Identification of occupational cancer risks in British Columbia
  A population based case-control study of breast cancer cases in British Columbia finds excess risk for females in occupations as crop farmers and those in the fruit and vegetable industries.
  [Band, P.R., et al. 2000. J Occup Environ Med 42(3):284-310.]
• Mammographic findings and occupational exposure to pesticides currently in use on Crete
  Women occupationally exposed to pesticides in Crete greenhouses have higher risks of incidence for number of breast tissue legions, which are risk markers for subsequent invasive breast cancer.
  [Dolapsakis, G., et al. 2001. Eur J Cancer 37(12):1531-1536.]
• A population-based case-control study of farming and breast cancer in North Carolina
  A population based, case control study of North Carolina female farmers finds that while farmers in general tend to have lower breast cancer risk, for those women who reported being present in fields during or shortly after a pesticide application (OR 1.8) and for those who reported not using protective clothing while applying pesticides (OR 2.0) are at increased risk for breast cancer.
  [Duell, E.J., et al. 2000. Epidemiology 11(5):523-531.
• Breast cancer risk in Hispanic agricultural workers in California
  A registry-based case control study of breast cancer in farm labor union members in California finds risk of breast cancer to be associated with mushroom crops (OR 6.0) as well as the use of chlordane, malathion, and 2,4-D. According to the study, risk associated with chemical use is stronger in younger women and those with early-onset breast cancer.
  [Mills, P.K. and Yang, R. 2005. Int J Occup Environ Health 11(2):123-131.]
• Reported residential pesticide use and breast cancer risk on  Long Island, New York
  A population based, case control study of Long Island, New York breast cancer cases finds an increased risk associated with: (a) lifetime residential pesticide use (OR 1.39); (b) application of lawn insecticides themselves (OR 1.56) and is higher if it is in liquid form (OR 1.77) or a combination of product type for outdoor plants (OR 1.83); (c) professional application of pesticides in a vegetable and fruit garden more than doubled (OR 2.29); and, (d) application of pesticides for insects or diseases on outdoor plants by self (OR 1.58) or by professional (OR 1.79).
  [Teitelbaum, S.L., et al. 2007. American Journal of Epidemiology 165(6):643-651.]
• Environmental exposure and breast cancer among young women in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
  A case series study in Brazil find an increased risk of breast cancer for residential use of pesticides during adulthood.
  [Ortega Jacome, G.P., et al. 2010. J Toxicol Environ Health A. 73(13-14):858-65.]
• Pesticides and breast cancer risk: a comparison between developed and developing countries
  Literature review links DDT to breat cancer in the developing world. According to the authors, there is a dearth of studies in developing countries, which cannot be made up for generalizing the results from developed countries to the developing and third world.
  [Shakeel MK, George PS, Jose J, Jose J, Mathew A. 2010. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev. 2010;11(1):173-80.]
  

Cervical Cancer

• Cancer incidence in a cohort of licensed pesticide applicators in Florida
  Although small numbers Cancer incidence among licensed pesticide applicators in Florida is elevated for cervical cancer (SIR 3.69).
  [Fleming, L., et al. 1999. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 41(4):279-288.]

Colorectal Cancer

• Proportionate mortality study of golf course superintendents
  A mortality study of a cohort of golf course superintendents finds an elevated levels for large intestine cancer (proportionate mortality ratio 175).
  [Kross, B.C., et al. 1996. Am J Ind Med 29(5):501-506.]
• Cancer mortality among Iowa farmers: recent results, time trends, and lifestyle factors (United States)
  Cancer mortality among farmers shows an excess of deaths for cancers of the rectum (1.29 PMR).
  [Cerhan, J.R., et al. 1998. Cancer Causes Control 9(3):311-319.]
• Cancer incidence among Icelandic pesticide users
  Occupational exposure to pesticides in a small Icelandic study shows a significant increased incidence for rectal cancer, especially for licensed pesticide users (standardized incidence ratio 4.63).
  [Zhong, Y. and Rafnsson, V. 1996. International Journal of Epidemiology 25(6):1117-1124.]
• Geographical differences of cancer incidence in Costa Rica in relation to environmental and occupational pesticide exposure
  A study in Costa Rica finds heavy pesticide use in rural counties is associated with an increase risk for rectum cancer in females (OR 1.86).
  [Wesseling, C., et al. 1999. International Journal of Epidemiology 28:365-374.]
• Cancer among farmers in central Italy
  A case-referent study of Italian farmers finds a significantly increased risk of rectal cancer among licensed pesticides users with greater than 10 years’ experience.
  [Forastiere, F, et al. 1993. Scand J Work Environ Health 19(6):382-389.]
• Pesticide use and colorectal cancer risk in the Agricultural Health Study
  A study of agricultural pesticides and colorectal cancer incidence in the Agricultural Health Study, chlorpyrifos shows significant exposure response trend for rectal cancer.
  [Lee, W.J., et al. 2007. Int J Cancer 121(2):339-346.]
• Lifestyle, occupational, and reproductive factors and risk of colorectal cancer
  A history of pesticide exposure and more frequently eating food directly from farms were significantly associated with a higher risk of colorectal carcinoma (OR 2.6) [Lo AC, et al. 2010. Dis Colon Rectum. 53(5):830-7.]
• Cancer among farmers in central Italy
  A case-referent study of Italian farmers finds a possible relationship between fruit crops and colon and bladder cancer. [Forastiere, F, et al. 1993. Scand J Work Environ Health 19(6):382-389.]
• Heterocyclic aromatic amine pesticide use and human cancer risk: results form the U.S. Agricultural Health Study
  A prospective cohort study of the Agricultural Health Study evaluated imazethapyr, a heterocyclic aromatic amine herbicide, finding significant trend in risk with increasing lifetime exposure for colon cancer, limited to proximal cancers.
  [Koutros, S., et al. 2009. Int J Cancer 124(5):1206-1212.]
• Geographical differences of cancer incidence in Costa Rica in relation to environmental and occupational pesticide exposure
  A study in Costa Rica finds heavy pesticide use in rural counties is associated with an increase risk for colon cancer in females (OR 1.65).
  [Wesseling, C., et al. 1999. International Journal of Epidemiology 28:365-374.]
• Cancer incidence among pesticide applicators exposed to dicamba in the Agricultural Health Study
  A study using the Agricultural Health Study finds a significant trends of increasing risk for colon cancer for lifetime exposure days and intensity-weighted lifetime days at the highest exposure level.
  [Samanic, C., et al. 2006. Environ Health Perspect 114(10):1521-1526.]
• Cancer incidence among pesticide applicators exposed to trifluralin in the Agricultural Health Study
  A study using data from the AHS finds a possible link between trifluralin exposure and colon cancer.
  [Kang, D., et al. 2008. Environ Res 107(2):271-276.]
• S-Ethyl-N,N-dipropylthiocarbamate exposure and cancer incidence among male pesticide applicators in the Agricultural health Study: A perspective cohort
  An association between the highest category of lifetime the thiocarbamate herbicide EPTC (S-Ethyl-N,N-dipropylthiocarbamate )exposure days and colon cancer is found in participants in the Agricultural Health Study.
  [van Bemmel, D.M., et al. 2008. Environmental Health Perspectives 116(11):1541-1546.]

Eye Cancer

• Cancer in offspring of parents engaged in agricultural activities in Norway: incidence and risk factors in the farm environment
  Parental agricultural exposure to pesticides is associated with eye cancer.
  [Kristensen, P., et al. 1996. Int J Cancer 65(1):39-50.]
• Risk of childhood cancers associated with residence in agriculturally intense areas in the United States
  Retinoblastoma associated with increased risk estimates for children less than one year of year and up through nine years of age is found in a study looking at children with cancer residence at diagnosis relative to the percent of land used for agriculture in the county.
  [Carrozza, S.E., et al. 2008. Environ Health Perspect 116(4):559-565.]

Gallbladder Cancer

• Geographical differences of cancer incidence in Costa Rica in relation to environmental and occupational pesticide exposure
  A study in Costa Rica finds heavy pesticide use in rural counties is associated with an increase risk for gallbladder cancer in males (OR 1.49) and in females (OR 1.73).
  [Wesseling, C., et al. 1999. International Journal of Epidemiology 28:365-374.]
• Mortality in a cohort of pesticide applicators in an urban setting: sixty years of follow-up
  A cohort study in Rome of urban pesticide applicators finds an increased risk for cancer of the gallbladder.
  [Giordano, F., et al. 2006. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 19(Suppl 4):61-65.]

Kidney/Renal Cancer

• Cancer among farmers in central Italy
  A case-referent study of Italian farmers finds a significantly increased risk of kidney cancer among farmers with greater than 10 years experience and a possible relationship between olives and potato growing and kidney cancer.
  [Forastiere, F, et al. 1993. Scand J Work Environ Health 19(6):382-389.]
• Parental exposures to pesticides and risk of Wilms’ tumor in Brazil
  Elevated risk is found for farm work involving paternal (3.24 OR) and maternal (128.6 OR) frequent use of pesticides.
  [Sharpe, C.R., et al. 1995. Am J Epidemiol 141(3):210-217.]
• Childhood cancer and paternal employment in agriculture: the role of pesticides
  Paternal occupational exposure to pesticides is statistically significant for kidney cancer, Wilms’ tumor in offspring.
  [Fear, N.T., et al. 1998. Br J Cancer 77(5):825-829.]
• Risk factors for Wilms tumor
  A study examining nonoccupational risk factors for Wilms tumor finds an association with a history of household insect extermination.
  [Olshan, A.F., et al. 1993. Cancer 72(3):938-944.]
• Cancer in offspring of parents engaged in agricultural activities in Norway: incidence and risk factors in the farm environment
  Parental agricultural exposure to pesticides is associated with Wilms’ tumor, as well as other forms of cancer.
  [Kristensen, P., et al. 1996. Int J Cancer 65(1):39-50.]
• Wilm’s tumor and exposure to residential and occupational hazardous chemicals
  A case-control study by the CDC finds elevated risk for pesticides during pregnancy and during the 2-year period prior to birth.
  [Tsai, J., et al. 2006. Int J Hyg Environ Health 209(1):57-64.]
• Risk of childhood cancers associated with residence in agriculturally intense areas in the United States
  An ecological study analyzing incidence data from U.S. children ages 0-14 years diagnosed with cancer between 1995 and 2001 and residence in a county with agricultural activity finds an elevated risk (OR 2.1) for Wilm’s tumors at high agricultural activity (greater than 60% of county acreage devoted to farming).
  [Carrozza, S.E., et al. 2008. Environ Health Perspect 116(4):559-565.]
• Occupational risk factors for renal-cell carcinoma in Denmark
  Risk of renal-cell carcinoma was found to be associated with employment as a truck driver, exposure to gasoline, other hydrocarbons, and insecticides and herbicides. The risk of renal-cell carcinoma was higher in the lower socioeconomic strata for both the men and the women.
  [Mellemgaard, A., et al. 1994. Scand J Work Environ Health 20(3):160-165.]
• Occupational risk factors for renal cell cancer. An Italian case-control study.
  “Prolonged” occupational exposures to pesticides is associated with an increased risk for renal cell cancer (OR 2.0).
  [Buzio, L., et al. 2002. Med Lav 93(4):303-309.]
• Renal cell carcinoma and occupational exposure to chemicals in Canada
  An increased risk of renal cell carcinoma in males is associated with exposure to herbicides (1.6 OR) and pesticides (1.8 OR) and in particular a dose-response relationship for herbicides.
  [Hu, J., et al. 2002. Occup Med 52(3):157-164.]
• Renal cell carcinoma, occupational pesticide exposure and modification by glutathione S-transferase polymorphisms
  A case-control study analyzing occupational pesticide exposure and renal cell carcinoma finds an increased risk and the risk is exclusive to individuals with active glutathione S-transferase GSTM1/T1 genotypes.
  [Karami, S., et al. 2008. Carcinogenesis 29(8):1567-1571.]
• Risk of childhood cancers associated with residence in agriculturally intense areas in the United States
  An ecological study analyzing incidence data from U.S. children ages 0-14 years diagnosed with cancer between 1995 and 2001 and residence in a county with moderate to high agriculture activity finds statistically significantly elevated risk for renal carcinoma at moderate agriculture activity (OR 2.3) and at high agriculture activity (OR 3.3). In regards to specific crops grown, the study finds a link between cotton crops and renal carcinomas (OR 6.9).
  [Carrozza, S.E., et al. 2008. Environ Health Perspect 116(4):559-565.]
  

Larynx Cancer

• Geographical differences of cancer incidence in Costa Rica in relation to environmental and occupational pesticide exposure
  A study in Costa Rica finds heavy pesticide use in rural counties is associated with an increase risk for larynx cancer in males (OR 1.88).
  [Wesseling, C., et al. 1999. International Journal of Epidemiology 28:365-374.]

Leukemia

Childhood Leukemia

• Residential pesticides and childhood leukemia: a systematic review and meta-analysis
  A meta-analysis of 15 studies on residential pesticide use and childhood leukemia finds an association with exposure during pregnancy, as well as to insecticides and herbicides. An association is also found for exposure to insecticides during childhood.
  [Turner, M.C., et al. 2010. Environ Health Perspect 118(1):33-41]
• Residential proximity to agricultural pesticide applications and childhood acute lymphoblastic leukemia
  A population based, case control study in California using residential histories and proximity to agricultural pesticide use shows an elevated risk of childhood ALL associated with moderate exposure, but not high exposure, to pesticides classified as organophosphates, chlorophenoxy herbicides, and triazines, and with agricultural pesticides used as insecticides or fumigants.
  [Rull, R.P., et al. 2009. Environ Res 109(7):891-9]
• Pediatric acute lymphoblastic leukemia and exposure to pesticides.
  A case-control study of children diagnosed with ALL and their mothers in the Washington DC area finds an association between the development of childhood ALL and common household pesticides, as ALL child-mother pairs have elevated levels for the organophosphate metabolites diethylthiophosphate and diethyldithiophosphate and more case mothers (33%) than controls (14%) reported using insecticides in the home.
  [Soldin, O.P., et al. 2009. Therapeutic Drug Monitoring 31(4):495-501]
• Risk of childhood cancers associated with residence in agriculturally intense areas in the United States
  An ecological study analyzing incidence data from U.S. children ages 0-14 years diagnosed with cancer between 1995 and 2001 and residence in a county with agricultural activity finds an elevated risk for AML at high agricultural activity (greater than 60% of county acreage devoted to farming).
  [Carrozza, S.E., et al. 2008. Environ Health Perspect 116(4):559-565]
• Parental occupational exposure to pesticides and the risk of childhood leukemia in Costa Rica.
  In a Costa Rica population-based, case-control study, researchers find parental occupational exposure to pesticides increases the risk of childhood leukemia. Maternal pesticide exposure doubles offspring leukemia risk, whether before conception (OR 2.4), or during the first (OR 22) or second trimesters (OR 4.5) the risk is significant. Paternal pesticide exposure during the second trimester also increases risk (1.5 OR) in offspring. In regards to organophosphates, maternal exposure during the first trimester is three and a half times higher (OR 3.5). Exposure to benzimidazole pesticides during pregnancy also has twice the risk for childhood leukemia (OR 2.2)
  [Monge, P., et al. 2007. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment and Health 33(4):293-303]
• Household exposure to pesticides and risk of childhood hematopoietic malignancies: The ESCALE study (SFCE).
  A French registry-based case-control study finds that children born to mothers living in households with pesticide use during pregnancy have over twice as much risk of acute leukemia.
  [Rudant, J., et al. 2007. Environmental Health Perspectives 115(12):1787-1793]
• Association between prenatal pesticide exposures and the generation of leukemia-associated T(8;21)
  A study analyzing umbilical cord blood samples of infants whose meconium sample detected the pesticide propoxur, finds a two-fold increase incidence of t(8;21)(a22;a22), one of the most common cytogenetic abnormalities in childhood acute myeloid leukemia, suggesting that prenatal pesticide exposure is a factor in the generation of leukemia-associated chromosomal translocations.
  [Lafiura, K.M., et al. 2007. Pediatr Blood Cancer 48(5):624-628]
• Household exposure to pesticides and risk of childhood acute leukaemia
  A study of household pesticide exposure and childhood acute leukemia finds an increased risk for maternal home insecticide use during pregnancy and during childhood, and with garden insecticide use and fungicide use during childhood. Pyrethroid and lindane lice shampoo treatment is also associated with childhood acute leukemia. The majority of the childhood cancers were acute lymphocytic leukemia.
  [Menegaux, F., et al. 2006. Occup Environ Med 63(2):131-134]
• Child and maternal household chemical exposure and the risk of acute leukemia in children with Down's syndrome: a report from the Children's Oncology Group
  Children with Down’s syndrome have about a 20-fold increased risk for developing leukemia. A case-control study of acute leukemia in children with Down’s syndrome finds a positive association for acute lymphoblastic leukemia and maternal exposure to professional pest exterminations and to any pesticide.
  [Alderton, L.E., et al. 2006. American Journal of Epidemiology 164(3):212-221]
• Agricultural pesticide use and childhood cancer in California.
  Looking at residential proximity to agricultural pesticides, a population-based case-control study of early childhood cancer, ages 0-4 years, in California finds an elevated risk for leukemia associated with probable and possible carcinogen use and with nearby agricultural applications of organochlorines and organophosphates during pregnancy (metam sodium OR 2.05 and dicofol OR 1.83)
  [Reynolds, P, et al. 2005. Epidemiology 16(1):93-100]
• Critical windows of exposure to household pesticides and risk of childhood leukemia.
  A case-control study in California finds a significant increased risk of childhood leukemia to the use of professional indoor pesticide applications at any time from one year before birth to three years after. In addition, frequency of exposure to pesticides was also linked with increased risk
  [Ma, X., et al. 2002. Critical windows of exposure to household pesticides and risk of childhood leukemia. Environmental Health Perspectives 110:955-960]
• Transplacental chemical exposure and risk of infant leukemia with MLL gene fusion
  A small case-control, population-based study finds a significant increase risk for infant acute leukemia for maternal exposure to insecticides (OR 9.68) during pregnancy, including the carbamate propoxur.
  [Alexander, F.E., et al. 2001. Cancer Res 61(6):2542-2546]
• Risk of childhood leukemia associated with exposure to pesticides and with gene polymorphisms.
  A population-based case-control study of childhood ALL finds an increased risk for homeowner use of indoor insecticides and garden and interior plant pesticides, in particular with use during pregnancy and among carriers of the CYP1A1m1 and CYP1a1m2 gene mutations.
  [Infante-Rivard, C., et al. 1999. Epidemiology 10(5):481-487]
• Childhood leukaemia and exposure to pesticides: results of a case-control study in northern Germany
  A population-based case-control study in Northern Germany finds a significant association for pesticide use in gardens and childhood leukemia.
  [Meinert, E., et al. 1996. Eur J Cancer32A(11):1943-1948]
• Home pesticide use and childhood cancer: A case-control study
  A case-control study in Denver finds home use of pest strips containing dichlorvos is linked to childhood leukemia. The highest risk is found for exposure during the last 3 months of pregnancy, for exposure during the 2 years prior to diagnosis, and for exposure from birth through 2 years prior to diagnosis.
  [Leiss, J., et al. 1995. American Journal of Public Health 85:249-252]
• Case-control study on the association between a cluster of childhood haematopoietic malignancies and local environmental factors in Aalsmeer, The Netherlands.
  A small case-control study of a flower cultivation community in the Netherlands finds an increase risk for childhood hematopoietic malignancies, such as leukemia, for parental occupational use of pesticides.
  [Mulder, Y.M., et al. 1994. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 48:161-165]
• Epidemiological characteristics of childhood acute lymphocytic leukemia. Analysis by immunophenotype. The Childrens Cancer Group.
  A California study shows children’s exposure to insecticides is associated with a five-fold increase in childhood ALL.
  [Buckley, J.D., et al. 1994. Leukemia 8(5):856-864]
• Parental occupation and other environmental factors in the etiology of leukemias and non-Hodgkin's lymphomas in childhood: a case-control study
  A hospital-based case-control study in Italy finds a positive association with paternal work as a farmer and childhood ALL
  [Magnani, C., et al. 1990. Tumori 76(5):413-419]
• A population-based case-control study of childhood leukemia in Shanghai
  A population based case-control study in China of childhood leukemia cases finds an association between ALL with maternal occupational exposure to pesticides.
  [Shu, X.O., et al. 1988. Cancer 62(3):635-644]
• Occupational Exposures of Parents of Children with Acute Nonlymphocytic Leukemia: A Report from the Childrens Cancer Study Group
  A case-control study finds a consistent pattern of association of AML, also known as acute nonlymphoblastic leukemia (ANLL), risk with paternal exposure to pesticides for jobs held longer than three years, which is substantially increased for children under age 6 at diagnosis. An elevated risk is also found for a child’s direct exposure to pesticides in the home and for maternal exposure to home pesticides at the time of pregnancy.
  [Buckley, J.D., et al. 1989. Cancer Research 49:4030-4037]
• Environmental factors in childhood leukaemia.
  A small French case-control study finds paternal occupational exposures to pesticides as a risk factor for leukemia (12 cases versus 3 controls)
  [Laval, G. and Tuyns, A.J. 1988. British Journal of Industrial Medicine 45:843-844]
• Childhood leukemia and parents' occupational and home exposures.
  A case-control study in California finds household pesticide use can more than triple the risk of childhood leukemia and that garden pesticides increase the risk to over six-fold.
  [Lowengart, R., et al. 1987. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 79(1):39-46]

• Occupational exposure to terbufos and the incidence of cancer in the Agricultural Health Study
  A prospective cohort study of licensed pesticide applicators in Iowa and North Carolina show a suggestive association between terbufos and leukemia
  [Bonner, M.R., et al. 2010. Cancer Causes Control 21(6):871-7]
• Pesticide sales and adult male cancer mortality in Brazil.
  A study of pesticides sales in different parts of Brazil and cancer mortality rates a decade later finds a statistically significant correlation between pesticide sales with the mortality rates for leukemia
  [Chrisman, J.D., et al. 2009. Int J Hyg Environ Health ;212(3):310-21]
• Risk of leukaemia among pesticide manufacturing workers: a review and meta-analysis of cohort studies
  A meta-analysis of 14 cohort studies published between 1984 and 2004 on occupational exposure in pesticide manufacturing plants and leukemia finds a significant risk specifically for developing myeloid leukemia.
  [Van Maele-Fabry, G., et al. 2008. Environ Res 106(1):121-137]
• A systematic review of myeloid leukemias and occupational pesticide exposure
  A meta-analysis of 17 cohort and 16 case-control studies between 1979 and 2005 finds strong evidence of an increased risk of myeloid leukemia and occupation exposure of pesticide applicators.
  [Van Maele-Fabry, G., et al. 2007. Cancer Causes Control 18(5):457-478]
• Occupational exposure to pesticides and risk of hematopoietic cancers: meta-analysis of case-control studies
  A meta-analysis of 13 case-control studies on hematopoietic cancers published between 1990 and 2005 finds a significant positive association for occupational pesticide exposure of more than 10 years and all hematopoietic cancers
  [Merhi, M, et al. 2007. Cancer Causes Control 18(10):1209-1226]
• Cancer and pesticides: an overview and some results of the Italian multicenter case-control study on hematolymphopoietic malignancies
  A population-based case-control study in Italy finds a link between occupation exposure to 2,4-D and hematolymphopoietic malignancies.
  [Miligi, L., et al. 2006. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1076:366-377]
• Cancer incidence among male pesticide applicators in the Agricultural Health Study cohort exposed to diazinon
  Using the Agricultural Health Study cohort, an association is found for lifetime exposure days to diazinon and leukemia cases.
  [Beane Freeman, L.E., et al. 2005. American Journal of Epidemiology 162(11):1070-1079]
• Health impacts of pesticide exposure in a cohort of outdoor workers
  A historical cohort study of agricultural workers exposed to pesticides finds an increase in leukemia mortality for the lowest exposure group (standardized mortality ratio (SMR) 6.41).
  [Beard, J., et al. 2003. Environmental Health Perspectives 111(5):724-730]
• Childhood cancer and agricultural pesticide use: an ecologic study in California.
  A more recent ecological study in California correlating pesticide use data and leukemia finds a statistically significant elevated risk to propargite at the highest usage level.
  [Reynolds, P., et al. 2002. Environmental Health Perspectives 110(3):319-324]
• Mortality among aerial pesticide applicators and flight instructors: follow-up from 1965-1988
  A retrospective cohort mortality study of aerial pesticide applicator pilots finds a significantly elevated risk for leukemia
  [Cantor, K.P. and Silberman, W. 1999. Am J Ind Medicine 36(2):239-47]
• Correlation analysis of pesticide use data and cancer incidence rates in California counties.
  An ecological study in California analyzing data on pesticide use and cancer incidence finds a correlation between Hispanic males diagnosed with leukemia and use of the pesticides atrazine, 2.4-D, and captan.
  [Mills, P.K. 1998. Arch Environ Health 53(6):410-413]
• Case-control study on the association between a cluster of childhood haematopoietic malignancies and local environmental factors in Aalsmeer, The Netherlands.
  A small case-control study of a flower cultivation community in the Netherlands finds an increase risk for childhood hematopoietic malignancies, such as leukemia, for parental occupational use of pesticides.
  [Mulder, Y.M., et al. 1994. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 48:161-165]
• Myeloid leukemias and myelodysplastic syndromes: chemical exposure, histological subtype and cytogenetics in a case-control study
  An Italian case-control study finds a statistically significant association for woman exposed to pesticides (4.4 OR) for AML.
  [Ciccone, G., et al. 1993. Cancer Genet Cytogenet 68(2):135-139]
• Morphologic, immunologic and cytogenetic studies in acute myeloid leukemia following occupational exposure to pesticides and organic solvents.
  An Italian study looking at chromosome changes of AML diagnosed patients finds a link to occupational exposure to pesticides.
  [Cuneo, A. et al. 1992. Leuk Res 16(8):789-796.]
• Cancer mortality in the U.S. flour industry
  A study of workers employed in U.S. flour mills, where according to the study author’s, “pesticides are used more frequently than in other segments of the industry,” an increased risk for developing leukemia is found.
  [Alavanja, M.C., et al. 1990. J Natl Cancer Inst 82(10):840-848]
• Pesticide exposures and other agricultural risk factors for leukemia among men in Iowa and Minnesota.
  A population-based case-control interview study of white males with luekemia in Iowa and Minnesota finds a slight, yet significant, elevated risk of farmers for all leukemia and specifically for CLL.
  [Brown, L.M., et al. 1990. Cancer Research 50:6585-6591]
• Mortality among white and nonwhite farmers in North Carolina, 1976-1978.
  A mortality study of North Carolinian farmers finds that although there was no increased mortality for whites, nonwhite farmers have an increased frequency of leukemia (proportional mortality ratios (PMR) 1.9)
  [Delzell, E., and Grufferman, S. 1985. Am J Epidemiol 121(3):391-402]
• Lung cancer and other causes of death among licensed pesticide applicators.
  A cohort study of causes of death among licensed pesticide applicators in Florida finds excess deaths due to leukemia, particularly myeloid leukemia
  [Blair, A., et al. 1983. J Natl Cancer Inst 71(1):31-37]

Lip Cancer

• Pesticide sales and adult male cancer mortality in Brazil
  A study of pesticides sales different parts of Brazil and cancer mortality rates a decade later finds pesticide sales show statistically significant correlation with the mortality rates for several cancers, including cancer of the lip.
  [Chrisman, J.D., et al. 2008. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 212(3):310-21]
• Swedish agricultural workers: A group with a decreased risk of cancer
  A Swedish study based on a cancer registry of agricultural workers finds an increased risk of cancer of the lip by a factor of greater than 2.
  [Wiklund, K. 1983. Cancer 51(3):566-568.]
• Cancer mortality among Iowa farmers: recent results, time trends, and lifestyle factors (United States)
  Younger farmers (aged 20 to 64 years) had excess deaths for colon cancer (proportional mortality ratio 1.52) and skin melanoma (proportional mortality ratio 1.60), while older farmers (aged 65+ years) had excess deaths for cancers of the pancreas (proportional mortality ratio 1.18), lip (proportional mortality ratio 1.58), and leukemia (proportional mortality ratio 1.26).
  [Cerhan, J.R., et al. 1998. Cancer Causes Control 9(3):311-319]

Liver/Hepatic Tumors

• Geographical differences of cancer incidence in Costa Rica in relation to environmental and occupational pesticide exposure
  A study in Costa Rica finds heavy pesticide use in rural counties is associated with a two-fold increase risk for liver cancer in females (OR 2.20).
  [Wesseling, C., et al. 1999. International Journal of Epidemiology 28:365-374.]
• Mortality in a cohort of pesticide applicators in an urban setting: sixty years of follow-up
  A mortality cohort study in Rome of urban pesticide applicators finds an increased risk for cancer of the liver.
  [Giordano, F., et al. 2006. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 19(Suppl 4):61-65.]
• Risk of childhood cancers associated with residence in agriculturally intense areas in the United States
  An ecological study analyzing incidence data from U.S. children ages 0-14 years diagnosed with cancer between 1995 and 2001 and residence in a county with agricultural activity finds an elevated risk for hepatic tumors (OR 3.3) and for subtype hepatoblastoma (OR 4.0) at high agricultural activity (greater than 60% of county acreage devoted to farming).
  [Carrozza, S.E., et al. 2008. Environ Health Perspect 116(4):559-565.]

Lung Cancer

• Cancer incidence among male pesticide applicators in the Agricultural Health Study cohort exposed to diazinon
  Using the Agricultural Health Study cohort, an association is found for lifetime exposure days to diazinon and lung cancer cases.
  [Beane Freeman, L.E., et al. 2005. American Journal of Epidemiology 162(11):1070-1079.]
• Pesticides and lung cancer risk in the Agricultural Health Study Cohort
  Four agricultural pesticides are associated with a significant excess lung cancer risk in the Agricultural Health Study cohort.
  [Alavanja, M.C.R., et al. 2004. American Journal of Epidemiology 160(9):876-885.]
• Occupational risk factors for lung cancer among nonsmoking women: a case-control study in Missouri (United States)
  A population-based, case-control study of nonsmokers finds elevated risk among women exposed to pesticides (OR 2.4) for lung cancer.
  [Brownson, R.C., et al. 1993. Cancer Causes Control 4(5):449-454.]
• Cancer incidence among pesticide applicators exposed to dicamba in the Agricultural Health Study
  An Agricultural Health study finds for low-exposed pesticide applicators, a positive trend in risk between lifetime exposure days and lung cancer.
  [Samanic, C., et al. 2006. Environ Health Perspect 114(10):1521-1526.]
• Cohort mortality and nested case-control study of lung cancer among structural pest control workers in Florida (United States)
  Lung cancer risk is greater for structural pest control workers than non-pest control workers, significant findings include if the worker was first licensed before age 40 (OR 2.4) and for workers licensed 20 or more years (OR 2.1).
  [Pesatori, A.C., et al. 1994. Cancer Causes and Control 5:310-318.]
• Increased risk of lung cancer in pesticide-exposed male agricultural workers
  A 1981 study of male German agricultural workers exposed to pesticides finds a dose-effect relationship between duration of employment and lung cancer mortality.
  [Barthel, E. 1981. J Toxicol Environ Health 8(5-6):1027-1040.]
• Lung cancer and other causes of death among licensed pesticide applicators
  A cohort study of causes of death among licensed pesticide applicators in Florida finds excess deaths due to lung cancer. Although individuals’ tobacco use was not available, a 1983 study of causes of death among licensed pesticide applicators in Florida finds excess deaths due to cancer of the lungs and that the risk increased with the number of years licensed. Mortality is shown to be greatest for those first licensed before age 40 than among those individuals licensed after age 40.
  [Blair, A., et al. 1983. J Natl Cancer Inst 71(1):31-37.]
• Geographical differences of cancer incidence in Costa Rica in relation to environmental and occupational pesticide exposure
  A study in Costa Rica finds heavy pesticide use in rural counties is associated with a twofold increase risk for lung cancer for both males and females (OR 2.01 males; 2.63 females).
  [Wesseling, C., et al. 1999. International Journal of Epidemiology 28:365-374.]
• Cancer Incidence Among Pesticide Applicators Exposed to Chlorpyrifos in the Agricultural Health Study
  The rate of lung cancer increases among those workers with higher levels of chlorpyrifos exposure. Individuals in the highest quartile of lifetime exposure-days had more than twice the risk of lung cancer compared with those with no chlorpyrifos exposure. Even when study authors controlled for other factors such as smoking, family history of cancer, and age, the chlorpyrifos link to lung cancer remained.
  [Lee WJ, et al. 2004. J Natl Cancer Inst. 96(23):1781-9.]
• TP53 gene mutations of lung cancer patients inupper northern Thailand and environmental risk factors
  A study that evaluated the risk factors that influence TP53 gene mutation (which is observed in about 40-70% of lung cancer tissues) in lung cancer patients finds that these mutations are induced by exposure to substances other than tocacoo smoke, possibly pesticide exposure.
  [Bumroongkit, K., et al. 2008. Cancer Genet Cytogenet 185(1):20-27.]
• Cancer incidence among pesticide applicators exposed to metolachlor in the Agricultural Health Study
  Using the Agricultural Health Study, a prospective cohort suty of licensed pesticide applicators in North Carolina and Iowa, finds a nonsignificant increased risk for lung cancer with lifetime days exposure in the highest category (RR 2.37).
  [Rusiecki, J.A., et al. 2006. Int J Cancer 118(12):3118-3123.]

Lymphoma

Hodgkin's Lymphoma

• Risk of childhood cancers associated with residence in agriculturally intense areas in the United States.
  An ecological study analyzing incidence data from U.S. children ages 0-14 years diagnosed with cancer between 1995 and 2001 and residence in a county with agricultural activity finds an elevated risk (OR 2.1) for HL at high agricultural activity (greater than 60% of county acreage devoted to farming).
  [Carrozza, S.E., et al. 2008. Risk of childhood cancers associated with residence in agriculturally intense areas in the United States. Environ Health Perspect 116(4):559-565]
• Household exposure to pesticides and risk of childhood hematopoietic malignancies: The ESCALE study (SFCE).
  A 2007 case-control study in France finds that the mothers use of any household pesticide use is associated with mixed-cell Hodgkin lymphoma (HL)
  [Rudant, J., et al. 2007. Environmental Health Perspectives 115(12):1787-1793]
• Occupation and lymphoid malignancies: results from a French case-control study
  A multicentered hospital based case-control study in France finds that self-declared occupational pesticide exposure is significantly associated with HL
  [Orsi, L, et al. 2007. J Occup Environ Med 49(12):1339-1350]
• Exposure to non-arsenic pesticides is associated with lymphoma among farmers in Spain
  A case-control study in Spain finds that crop and animal farmers exposed to non-arsenic pesticides (carbamates, organophosphates, chlorinated hydrocarbons, triazines and triazoles, phenoxy herbicides, chlorophenols, dibenzodioxin, and dibenzofuran) have an increased risk of lymphoma (OR 2.8).
  [van Balen, E., et al. 2006. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 63:663-668]
• Cancer risk and parental pesticide application in children of Agricultural Health Study participants.
  A perspective study of Iowa and North Carolinian children of farmers using pesticides show a greater than two-fold increased risk of childhood lymphoma compared with the general population .
  [Flower, K., et al. 2004. Environmental Health Perspectives 112:631-635]
• Cancer mortality among Iowa farmers: recent results, time trends, and lifestyle factors (United States).
  A cancer mortality study of Iowa farmers shows an excess of deaths for Hodgkin's disease.
  [Cerhan, J.R., et al. 1998. Cancer mortality among Iowa farmers: recent results, time trends, and lifestyle factors (United States). Cancer Causes Control 9(3):311-319]
• Some occupational exposures as risk factors for malignant lymphomas.
  A Swedish case-referent occupational exposure study finds a significant risk for Hodgkin lymphoma (OR 7.4) for workers exposed to phenoxy herbicides
  [Persson, B., et al. 1993. Cancer 72(5):1773-1778]

Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma

• Occupational exposure to terbufos and the incidence of cancer in the Agricultural Health Study.
  A prospective cohort study of licensed pesticide applicators in Iowa and North Carolina show a suggestive association between terbufos and NHL.
  [Bonner, M.R., et al. 2010. Cancer Causes Control 21(6):871-7]
• Pesticide exposure as risk factor for non-Hodgkin lymphoma including histopathological subgroup analysis.
  A Swedish population based case-control study of male and female NHL patients finds the highest risk is for exposure to: herbicides; MCPA with a latency period greater than ten years; glyphosate ; and, glyphosate exposure with a latency period of greater than ten years . When different NHL subtypes are analyzed: (a) diffuse large B-cell lymphoma is significantly associate with exposure to phenoxyacetic acids and especially for MCPA; (b) small lymphocytic lymphoma/chronic lymphocytic leukemia is associated with exposure to phenoxy herbicides, MCPA , and glyphosate ; (c) the category “other specific B-cell lymphoma (mantle cell lymphoma, marginal zone lymphoma)” an association is found for exposure to phenoxyacetic acids, MCPA and glphyosate; and (d) the category “unspecific NHL” subtypes are associated with herbicides, phenoxyacetic acids, MCPA and glyphosate.
  [Eriksson, M., et al. 2008. Int J Cancer 123(7):1657-1663]
• High risk occupations for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in New Zealand: case-control study.
  Although pesticides are not specifically implicated, a New Zealand case control occupational study does find an elevated NHL risk for field crop and vegetable growers (OR 2.74) and horticulture and fruit growing (OR 2.28), particularly for women (OR 3.44).
  [Mannetje, A., et al. 2008. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 65:354-363]
• Occupational exposure to organochlorine insecticides and cancer incidence in the Agricultural Health Study
  A NIH prospective cohort study of licensed pesticide applicators in Iowa and North Carolina finds a significant increase in risk for NHL and lindane.
  [Purdue, M.P., et al. 2007. Int J Cancer 120(3):642-649]
• Household exposure to pesticides and risk of childhood hematopoietic malignancies: The ESCALE study (SFCE).
  A case-control study in France finds prenatal insecticide use is significantly associated with childhood lymphoblastic and myelobastic NHL, mainly for Burkitt lymphoma, and finds paternal household use of pesticides is associated with NHL. Household use of any pesticide during pregnancy is significantly more frequent in NHL cases.
  [Rudant, J., et al. 2007. Environmental Health Perspectives 115(12):1787-1793]
• Atopy, exposure to pesticides and risk of non-Hodgkin lymphoma
  Although the Australian population based case control study did not find a clear connection with asthma and pesticide exposure and NHL, it did find an increased risk of NHL with occupational pesticide exposure and a history of asthma as well as with occupational pesticide exposure an no history of asthma.
  [Vajdic, C.M., et al. 2007. Int J Cancer 120(10):2271-2274]
• Occupational exposure to pesticides and risk of hematopoietic cancers: meta-analysis of case-control studies.
  A meta-analysis of 13 case-control studies on hematopoeietic cancers finds that occupational pesticide exposure greater than ten years significantly increases risk of NHL (OR 1.65)
  [Merhi, M, et al. 2007. Cancer Causes Control 18(10):1209-1226]
• Agricultural pesticide use and risk of t(14;18)-defined subtypes of non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
  A population based, case control study in Nebraska looking at different molecular subtypes of NHL discovered that the risk of t(14;18)-positive NHL subtype is significantly elevated among farmers who used animal insecticides (OR 2.6), crop insecticides (OR 3.0), herbicides (OR 2.9) and fumigants (5.0 OR) and that there was no increased risk of t(14;18)-negative NHL subtype for these pesticides, which may explain some of the inconsistencies in epidemiological study of NHL and pesticide exposure. They also find that the risk increases with longer duration of use
  [Chiu, B., et al. 2006. Blood 108(4):1363-1369]
• Cancer and pesticides: an overview and some results of the Italian multicenter case-control study on hematolymphopoietic malignancies.
  A population based case-control study in Italy finds a significant increase in risk of NHL for occupational exposure to 2,4D.
  [Miligi, L., et al. 2006. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1076:366-377]
• Integrative assessment of multiple pesticides as risk factors for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma among men
  A study using three National Cancer Institute case-controls of NHL in Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, and Nebraska farmers finds coumaphos (OR 1.7), diazinon (OR 1.7), and glyphosate (OR 1.6) are associated with an increase in NHL incidence.
  [De Roos, A.J., et al. 2003. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 60(9):e11]
• Exposure to pesticides as risk factor for non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and hairy cell leukemia: pooled analysis of two Swedish case-control studies.
  A pooled analysis on two Swedish case-control studies of NHL and hairy cell leukemia, a NHL subtype, finds that cancer registrants are more likely to have been exposued to herbicides; especially for glyphosate and MCPA; and, fungicides.
  [Hardell, L., et al. 2002. Leuk Lymphoma 43(5):1043-1049]
• Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and specific pesticide exposures in men: cross-Canada study of pesticides and health.
  A Canadian multi-center population based incident case control study among men finds an increase risk of NHL for exposure to dicamba, carbamates, OPs, amide fungicides and fumigant carbon tetrachloride, mecoprop, malathion and carbaryl.
  [McDuffie, H., et al. 2001.Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 10:1155-1163]
• Agricultural risk factors for t(14;18) subtypes of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.
  A study using a case control study of amle farmers in Iowa and Minnesota finds that the t(14;18)-positive subtypes of NHL is associated with farming (OR 1.4), lindane (OR 2.3), atrazine (OR 1.7) and fungicides (OR 1.8) and no association with t(14;18)-negative NHL
  [Schroeder, J., et al. 2001. Epidemiology 12(6):701-709]
• Leukemia and Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma in Childhood and Exposure to Pesticides: Results of a Register-based Case-Control Study in Germany
  A population-based case-control study in West Germany finds that insecticide use at home, whether applied by a professional pesticide applicator or a parent more than once a year or more than 10 times a year, is associated with childhood lymphoma.
  [Meinert, R., et al. 2000. American Journal of Epidemiology 151(7):639-646]
• Pesticide exposures in children with non-Hodgkin lymphoma.
  A case-control study in the U.S. finds a significant association between risk of childhood NHL and frequency of reported prenatal home pesticide use, and professional treatments in the home. Postnatal home pesticide exposure also shows a significant association . In children, elevated risk for T-cell, B-cell lymphomas, lymphoblastic, large cell, and Burkitt morphologies are found.
  [Buckley, J.D., et al. 2000. Cancer 89(11):2315-2321]
• A case-control study of non-Hodgkin lymphoma and exposure to pesticides
  A population based case-control study in Sweden finds an increased risk for NHL for people exposed to herbicides, specifically significant is exposure to MCPA, and fungicides.
  [Hardell, L., et al. 1999. Cancer 85(6):1353-1360]
• Meta-analyses of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and farming.
  A meta-analyses of 36 studies on NHL and farming suggests that male U.S. farmers have a slightly elevated risk of NHL.
  [Khuder, S.A., et al 1998. Scand J Work Environ Health 24(4):255-261]
• Occupational exposures, animal exposure and smoking as risk factors for hairy cell leukaemia evaluated in a case-control study.
  A population based case-control occupational study of Swedish males with hairy cell leukemia find that exposure to herbicides (OR 2.9), insecticides (OR 2.0), fungicides (OR 3.8) and impregnating agents (OR 2.4) shows increased risk.
  [Nordstrom, M., et al. 1998. Br J Cancer 77(11):2048-2052.]
• Farming, pesticide use and hairy-cell leukemia.
  A significant association is found between HCL and exposure to pesticides used in farming (OR ranges between 1.5 to 2.4, depending on the type of pesticide). Orgaonphosphates were positively associated with HCL.
  [Clavel, J., et al. 1996. Scand J Work Environ Health 22(4):285-293]
• Cancer incidence among Icelandic pesticide users.
  A small cohort study in Iceland shows that female licensed pesticide applicators for agricultural purposes have a significant increased incidence for cancers of the lymphatic and hematopoietic tissue in women.
  [Zhong, Y. and Rafnsson, V. 1996. International Journal of Epidemiology 25(6):1117-1124]
• Proportionate mortality study of golf course superintendents.
  A proportionate mortality study (PMR) of a cohort of 686 golf course superintendents finds an elevated number deaths from NHL (PMR 237).
  [Kross, B.C., et al. 1996. Am J Ind Med 29(5):501-506]
• Cancer in offspring of parents engaged in agricultural activities in Norway: incidence and risk factors in the farm environment.
  A cohort study of cancer in offspring of parents working in Norway horticulture finds parental pesticide purchase associated with childhood NHL
  [Kristensen, P., et al. 1996. Int J Cancer 65(1):39-50]
• Non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and agricultural practices in the prairie provinces of Canada.
  A follow-up to a previous cohort study in Canada finds a significant increase risk for fatal NHL for male farmers according to acres sprayed herbicides
  [Morrison, H.I., et al. 1994. Scand J Work Environ Health 10(1):42-47]
• The role of agricultural pesticide use in the development of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in women
  A population-based case control study in Nebraska finds that NHL risk is significantly increased for woman who handle OP insecticides, for use of chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides, and for chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticide use on cattle. The study finds that pesticide related risk are grater for woman with a family history of cancer.
  [Zahm, S., et al. 1993. Archives of Environmental Health 48(5):353-358]
• Pesticides and Other Agricultural Risk Factors for Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma among Men in Iowa and Minnesota
  A population based study of white male farmers finds a significant increase in risk for (a) diffuse NHL and organophosphates (OP) on crops, non-halogenated aliphatic OP on crops, cyclodiene chlorinated hydrocarbons used on livestock, and triazine herbicides; (b) small lymphocytic NHL with “natural product insecticides used on livestock” (although nowhere in the study does it define “natural”), and halongenated aromatic OP for livestock); and, (c) other and unclassified forms of NHL and chlorinated hydrobarbon insecticides for crops, cyclodienes for crops, and halogenated aliphatic OPs used on livestock
  [Cantor, K., et al. 1992. Cancer Research 52:2447-2455]
• Herbicides and Cancer
  A literature review of epidemiological studies finds “reasonable evidence suggesting that occupational exposure to phenoxy herbicides results in increased risks of developing [NHL]
  [ Morrison, H.I., et al. 1992. J Natl Cancer Inst 84(24):1866-1874].
• A case-control study of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and the herbicide 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) in eastern Nebraska.
  A population based case-control study in Nebraska finds a slight increase NHL risk for men who mix or apply 2,4-D. A significant risk is found for: men who mix or apply 2,4-D for 20 days or more a year; men who mix or apply 2,4-D and fungicides; men who mix or apply 2,4-D and OPs; and, men who mix or apply 2,4-D, fungicides and OPs.
  [Zahm, S., et al. 1990. Epidemiology 1(5):349-356]
• Mortality study of Canadian male farm operators: cancer mortality and agricultural practices in Saskatchewan.
  A cohort mortality study of male Saskatchewan farmer finds a significant dose-response relationship is found between risk of NHL and acres sprayed with herbicides
  [Wigle, D., et al. 1990. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 82(7):575-582]
• Cancer mortality in the U.S. flour industry.
  A nested case control mortality study of workers employed in U.S. flour mills, where according to the study author’s, “pesticides are used more frequently than in other segments of the industry,” an increased risk for NHL (OR 4.2) is found
  [ Alavanja, M.C., et al. 1990. J Natl Cancer Inst 82(10):840-848.]
• Soft tissue sarcoma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in relation to phenoxyherbicide and chlorinated phenol exposure in western Washington.
  A population-based case-control study in Washington state finds an elevated risk of NHL among male forestry herbicide applicators and for men that are potential exposed to phenoxy herbicides in any occupation for 15 or more years prior to their cancer diagnosis.
  [Woods, J.S., et al. 1987. J Natl Cancer Inst 78(5):899-910]
• Agricultural herbicide use and a risk of lymphoma and soft-tissue sarcoma.
  A population based case control study in Kansas finds farm herbicide use increases risk associated with NHL; risk increased significantly for those men exposed to herbicides more than 20 days a year; and, those men that frequently mixed or applied herbicides themselves also have a significant increased risk to phenoxyacetic acid herbicides, specifically 2,4D.
  [Hoar, S., et al. 1986. Journal of the American Medical Association 259(9): 1141-1147]
• Malignant lymphoma and multiple myeloma linked with agricultural occupations in a New Zealand Cancer Registry-based study.
  A case-control study of New Zealand agriculture and forestry workers finds a significant excess of patients with nodular lymphoma, mycosis fungoldes, and NHL.
  [Pearce, N.E., et al. 1985. Am J Epidemiol 121(2):225-237]
• Farming and mortality from non-Hodgkin's lymphoma: A case-control study
  A case control mortality study in Wisconsin finds an elevated risk among farmers for reticulum-cell sarcoma, a subtype of NHL, in counties with grain acres treated with insecticides .
  [Cantor, KP. 1982. Int J Cancer 29(3):239-247]

Melanoma

• The association between residential pesticide use and cutaneous melanoma
  A case-control study of cutaneous melanoma finds an increased risk for indoor pesticide use four times a year (OR 2.18) compared to one time a year and for those exposed for 10 years or more an almost two and half times the risk as those exposed for less than 10 years indicating residential pesticide exposure may be a factor for cutaneous melanoma.
  [Fortes, C., et al. 2007. Eur J Cancer 43(6):1066-1075.]
• Carbaryl exposure and incident cancer in the Agricultural Health Study
  Using the Agricultural Health Study cohort of pesticide applicators and looking at carbaryl exposure, finds that carbaryl exposure is associated with an elevated risk to melanoma, even after adjusting for sunlight exposure.
  [Mahajan, R., et al. 2007. Int J Cancer  121(8):1799-1805.]
• Risk of childhood cancers associated with residence in agriculturally intense areas in the United States
  An ecological study analyzing incidence data from U.S. children ages 0-14 years diagnosed with cancer between 1995 and 2001 and residence in a county with moderate to high agricultural activity finds statistically significantly elevated risk for malignant melanoma at moderate agricultural activity (OR 1.6) and at high agricultural activity (OR 4.6). An increased risk is also found for malignant melanoma and oat crop acreage (OR 2.4).
  [Carrozza, S.E., et al. 2008. Environ Health Perspect 116(4):559-565.]
• Geographical differences of cancer incidence in Costa Rica in relation to environmental and occupational pesticide exposure
  A study in Costa Rica finds heavy pesticide use in rural counties is associated with an increase risk for skin melanoma cancer in males (OR 1.77).
  [Wesseling, C., et al. 1999. International Journal of Epidemiology 28:365-374.]
• Pesticide Use and Cutaneous Melanoma in Pesticide Applicators in the Agricultural Heath Study
  Research finds found significant associations between cutaneous melanoma and maneb/mancozeb (>or= 63 exposure days: OR = 2.4), parathion (>or= 56 exposure days: OR = 2.4), and carbaryl (>or= 56 exposure days: OR = 1.7). Other associations with benomyl and ever use of arsenical pesticides are also suggested.
  [Dennis LK, et al. 2010. Environ Health Perspect. 118(6):812-7. Epub 2010 Feb 17.]

Mouth Cancer

• Cancer of the mouth and pharynx, occupation and exposure to chemical agents in Findland (1971-95)
  A cohort study in Finland analyzing occupational and chemical exposure finds increased risk for high exposure to pesticides to increase risk of cancer of the mouth and phyarynx.
  [Tarvainen, L., et al. 2008. Int J Cancer 123(3):653-659.]

Multiple Myeloma

• Incidence and risk factors of cancer among men and women in Norwegian agriculture
  Agricultural exposure to pesticides for those cultivating potatoes is linked to multiple myeloma in males and females.
  [Kristensen, P., et al. 1996. Dcand J Work Environ Health 22(1):14-26.]
• Cancer mortality among Iowa farmers: recent results, time trends, and lifestyle factors (United States)
  Cancer mortality among Iowa farmers shows an excess of deaths for multiple myeloma (1.17 PMR).
  [Cerhan, J.R., et al. 1998. Cancer Causes Control 9(3):311-319.]
• Occupation, exposure to chemicals, sensitizing agents, and risk of multiple myeloma in Sweden
  A historical cohort study of occupation exposure in Sweden finds an excess risk among agricultural, horticultural and forestry workers in men and “occasional, although intense, exposure to pesticides is also associated with riks of myeloma.”
  [Lope, V., et al. 2008. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 17(11):3123-3127.]
• Occupational exposure to pesticides and risk of hematopoietic cancers: meta-analysis of case-control studies
  A meta-analysis of 13 case-control studies on hematopoeietic cancers (leukemia, NHL, and multiple myeloma) published between 1990 and 2005 finds a significant positive association for occupational pesticide exposure of more than 10 years and all hematopoietic cancers (OR 2.18).
  [Merhi, M, et al. 2007. Cancer Causes Control 18(10):1209-1226.]
• Selected cancer mortality and farm practices in Iowa
  A mortality study of Iowan farmers who died between 1964 and 1978 finds an elevated mortality from multiple myeloma in association with herbicide and insecticide use.
  [Burmeister, L.F., et al. 1983.Am J Epidemiol 118(1):72-77.]
• Malignant lymphoma and multiple myeloma linked with agricultural occupations in a New Zealand Cancer Registry-based study
  A case-control study of New Zealand agriculture and forestry workers finds a significant excess of patients with multiple myeloma (OR 2.22).
  [Pearce, N.E., et al. 1985. Am J Epidemiol 121(2):225-237.]
• Pesticide exposure and risk of monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance in the Agricultural Health Study
  Exposure to certain pesticides doubles one’s risk of developing an abnormal blood condition called MGUS (monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance) compared with individuals in the general population.
  [Landgren, O, et al. 2009. Blood, Vol. 113, No. 25, pp. 6386-6391]

Neuroblastoma

• Residential pesticide exposure and neuroblastoma
  Home (OR 1.6) and garden (OR 1.7) pesticide use are associated with neuroblastoma, with a more than double the risk for infants when exposed to garden pesticides.
  [Daniels, J.L., et al. 2001. Epidemiology 12(1):20-27.]
• Cancer in offspring of parents engaged in agricultural activities in Norway: incidence and risk factors in the farm environment
  Parental agricultural exposure to pesticides is associated with neuroblastoma.
  [Kristensen, P., et al. 1996. Int J Cancer 65(1):39-50.]
• Mortality and tumour morbidity among Swedish market gardeners and orchardists
  Swedish horticulturists’ trade association members below the age of 60 have an elevated number of tumors of the nervous system.
  [Littorin, M., et al. 1993. Int Arch Occup Environ Health 65(3):163-169.]
• Paternal occupational exposures and childhood cancer
  Paternal occupational pesticide exposure is associated with an increased risk of nervous system tumors (relative risk 2.36).
  [Feychting, M., e tal. 2001. Environ health Perspect 109(2):193-196.]
• Mortality in a cohort of pesticide applicators in an urban setting: sixty years of follow-up
  A cohort study in Rome of urban pesticide applicators finds an increased risk for cancer of the nervous system.
  [Giordano, F., et al. 2006. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 19(Suppl 4):61-65.]
• Childhood cancer in Texas counties with moderate to intense agricultural activity
  A case-control study in Texas that looked at percent cropland and cases of childhood cancers finds an elevated, yet not statistically significant, risk for the association between birth county with 50percent or more cropland to children with CNS tumors (OR 1.3).
  [Walker, K.M., et al. 2007. J Agric Saf Health 13(1):9-24.]
• Risk of childhood cancers associated with residence in agriculturally intense areas in the United States
  An ecological study analyzing incidence data from U.S. children ages 0-14 years diagnosed with cancer between 1995 and 2001 and residence in a county with agricultural activity finds an elevated risk (OR 1.9) for primitive neuroectodermal tumors (central nervous system) at high agricultural activity (greater than 60% of county acreage devoted to farming). Also sympathetic nervous system tumors at high agricultural activity, with subtypes neuroblastomas (OR 1.8) and retinoblastomas (OR 2.6) showing an increased risk.
  [Carrozza, S.E., et al. 2008. Environ Health Perspect 116(4):559-565.]

Oesophageal Cancer

• Geographical differences of cancer incidence in Costa Rica in relation to environmental and occupational pesticide exposure
  A study in Costa Rica finds heavy pesticide use in rural counties is associated with an increase risk for oesophagus cancer in males (OR 1.69).
  [Wesseling, C., et al. 1999. International Journal of Epidemiology 28:365-374.]
• Airborne occupational exposures and risk of oesophageal and cardia adenocarcinoma
  A Swedish population based case control study assessing cumulative airborne occupational exposure finds a positive association between high exposure to pesticides and risk of oesophageal (OR 2.3) and cardia adenocarcinoma (OR 2.1).
  [Jansson, C., et al. 2006. Occup Environ Med 63(2):107-112.]
• Pesticide sales and adult male cancer mortality in Brazil
  A study of pesticides sales different parts of Brazil and cancer mortality rates a decade later finds pesticide sales show statistically significant correlation with the mortality rates for several cancers, including cancer of the esophagus.
  [Chrisman, J.D., et al. 2008. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 212(3):310-21]

Ovarian Cancer

• Triazine herbicides and ovarian epithelial neoplasms
  A population-based case referent study finds a significant increased risk for ovarian neoplasm (relative risk 2.7).
  [Donna, A., et al. 1990. Scand J Work Environ Health 15(1):47-53.]
• Geographical differences of cancer incidence in Costa Rica in relation to environmental and occupational pesticide exposure
  A study in Costa Rica finds heavy pesticide use in rural counties is associated with an increase risk for ovarian cancer (OR 1.78).
  [Wesseling, C., et al. 1999. International Journal of Epidemiology 28”365-374.]

Pancreatic Cancer

• Risk of pancreatic cancer and occupational exposures in Spain
  In a small study, occupational exposures to pesticides cause a three-fold increased risk for pancreatic cancer. For each type of pesticide group, moderately increased odds ratios were apparent in the high-intensity category, highest for arsenical pesticides (OR 3.4), and ‘other pesticides’ (OR 3.17).
  [Alguacil, J., et al. 2000. Ann Occup Hyg 44(5):391-403.]
• Cancer mortality in the U.S. flour industry
  A study of U.S. flour mill workers finds an two-fold increased risk for pancreatic cancer (OR 2.2.) believed to be related to pesticide exposure.
  [Alavanja, M.C., et al. 1990. J Natl Cancer Inst  82(10):840-848.]
• Pancreatic cancer and occupational exposures
  An occupational study in Finland finds an elevated risk of pancreatic cancer linked to pesticides (OR 1.7).
  [Kauppinen, T., et al. 1995. Epidemiology 6(5):498-502.]
• Pancreatic cancer in industrial branches and occupations in Finland
  Finnish study finds a more than six-fold increased risk for male gardeners to pancreatic cancer.
  [Partanen, T., et al 1994. Am J Ind Med 25(6):851-866.]
• Occupational exposure to pesticides and pancreatic cancer
  Excess risk is found for occupational exposure to fungicides (OR 1.5) and herbicides (OR 1.6).
  [Ji, B.T., et al. 2001. Am J Ind Med 39(1):92-99.]
• Agricultural pesticide use and pancreatic cancer risk in the Agricultural Health Study cohort
  A case-control analysis of pancreatic cancer in the Agricultural Health Study finds the herbicides EPTC (2.56 OR higher end of lifetime exposure) and pendimethalin (upwards of 3.0 OR) of the 13 pesticides examined are associated with pancreatic cancer.
  [Andreotti, G., et al. 2009. Int J Cancer. 124(10):2495-500.]
• Mortality among aerial pesticide applicators and flight instructors: follow-up from 1965-1988
  Aerial pesticide applicator pilots are at a significantly elevated risk for pancreatic cancer (risk ratio 2.71).
  [Cantor, K.P. and Silberman, W. 1999. Am J Ind Med. 36(2):239-47.]
• Cancer among farmers in central Italy
  A case-referent study of Italian farmers finds a significantly increased risk of pancreatic cancer, as well as other cancers, among licensed pesticides users with greater than 10 years’ experience.
  [Forastiere, F, et al. 1993. Scand J Work Environ Health 19(6):382-389.]
• Lifestyle, occupational, and reproductive factors in relation to pancreatic cancer risk
  A study identifying risk factors for pancreatic cancer in Egypt finds an elevated risk for those individuals exposed to pesticides (OR 2.6).
  [Lo, A.C., et al. 2007. Pancreas 35(2):120-129.]
• Pesticide sales and adult male cancer mortality in Brazil
  A study of pesticides sales different parts of Brazil and cancer mortality rates a decade later finds pesticide sales show statistically significant correlation with the mortality rates for several cancers, including cancer of the pancreas.
  [Chrisman, J.D., et al. 2008. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 212(3):310-21]

• Cancer mortality among Iowa farmers: recent results, time trends, and lifestyle factors (United States)
  A cancer mortality study of Iowa farmers shows an excess of deaths for cancers of the prostate (1.26 PMR).
  [Cerhan, J.R., et al. 1998. Cancer Causes Control 9(3):311-319.]
• Mortality among white and nonwhite farmers in North Carolina, 1976-1978
  A mortality study of farmers in North Carolina finds an increased frequency of prostate cancer among white decedents under 65 years of age (PMR 1.6).
  [Delzell, E., and Grufferman, S. 1985. Am J Epidemiol 121(3):391-402.]
• Cancer among farmers in central Italy
  A case-referent study of Italian farmers finds a possible relationship between wheat crops and prostate cancer.
  [Forastiere, F, et al. 1993. Scand J Work Environ Health 19(6):382-389.]
• Meta-analyses of prostate cancer and farming
  A meta-analyses of prostate cancer and farming studies between 1983 and 1994 finds a positive association between prostate cancer and farming, which the study authors attribute to exposure to hormonally active agricultural chemicals.
  [Keller-Byrne, J.E., et al. 1997. Am J Ind Med 31(5):580-586.]
• Use of agricultural pesticides and prostate cancer risk in the Agricultural Health Study cohort
  A prospective cohort study of Iowa and North Carolina male pesticide applicators finds that the two highest exposure scenarios (OR 2.73 and 3.47) significantly increase risk for prostate cancer. Significant interaction odds ratios occurred among persons who used butylate (OR 1.93); four organophosphorothioate insecticides including coumaphos (OR 2.58), fonofos (OR 2.04), chlorpyrifos (OR 1.65), and phorate (OR 1.64); and a pyrethroid, permethrin (for animal use) (OR 2.31).
  [Alavanja, M., et al. 2003. American Journal of Epidemiology 157:800-814.]
• Cancer incidence in a cohort of licensed pesticide applicators in Florida
  A standardized incidence ratio anaylsis (SIR) of licensed pesticide applicators in Florida, compared with Florida’s general population, finds an increased incidence rate for prostate cancer (SIR 1.91).
  [Fleming, L., et al. 1999. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 41(4):279-288.]
• A case-control study of farming and prostate cancer in African-American and Caucasian men
  A population-based case-control study in South Carolina finds farming is associated with increase risk of prostate cancer in Caucasians (OR 1.8) but not African-Americans. The study also finds that farmers who mixed or applied pesticides have a greater risk (OR 1.6); and, the increased risk is found only for those farming less than 5 years. The authors conclude that the racial difference “may be explained by different farming activities or different gene-environment interactions by race.” [Meyer, T.E., et al. 2007. Occup Environ Med 64(3):155-160.]
• Proportionate mortality study of golf course superintendents
  A mortality study of a cohort of 686 deceased U.S. male golf course superintendents from the finds elevated levels for prostate cancer (PMR 293).
  [Kross, B.C., et al. 1996. Am J Ind Med 29(5):501-506.]
• Pesticide sales and adult male cancer mortality in Brazil
  A study of pesticides sales in different parts of Brazil and cancer mortality rates a decade later finds pesticide sales show statistically significant correlation with the mortality rates for several cancers, including prostate cancer (r=0.69; p=0.019).
  [Chrisman, J.D., et al. 2008. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 212(3):310-21]
• Prostate cancer risk in California farm workers
  Hispanic farmworkers are found to be at an increased risk for prostate cancer when exposed to relatively high levels of certain organochlorines, organophosphates, fumigants and triazine herbicides.
  [Mills, P.K. and Yang, R. 2003. J Occup Environ Med  45(3):249-258.]
• Occupation and prostate cancer
  Occupational exposures to pesticides including farmers, forestry workers or horticulturists finds a slight increased risk among farmers, speculating that certain pesticides act as hormone modifiers and influence the prostate cancer risk.
  [Parent, M. and Siemiatycki, J. 2001. Epidemiologic Reviews 23(1):138-143.]
• Prostate cancer and exposure to pesticides in agricultural settings
  Individuals that have worked in agriculture is associated with a 40% increased risk of prostate cancer (OR 1.4)
  [Settimi, L., et al. 2003. Int J Cancer 104(4):458-461.]
• Cancer incidence among triazine herbicide manufacturing workers
  Workers at a triazine manufacturing plant are found to have an elevated number of prostate cancer cases.
  [MacLennan, P.A., et al. 2002. J Occup Environ Med 44(11):1048-1058.]
• Occupation and prostate cancer risk in Sweden
  Swedish stuy shows significantly elevated standardized incidence ratio are found in farmers and ceratin occupations and industries with exposures to herbicides and fertilizers. Results suggest that farmers; certain occupations and industries with exposures to cadmium, herbicides, and fertilizers; and men with low occupational physical activity levels have elevated prostate cancer risks.
  [Sharma-Wagner, S., et al. 2000. J Occup Environ Med 42(5):517-525.]
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• Prostate cancer in pesticide applicators in Swedish agriculture
  A cohort of over 20,000 licensed agriculture pesticide applicators in Sweden finds a statistically significant increased risk of prostate cancer.
  [Dich, J., and Wiklund, K. 1998. Prostate 34(2):100-112.]
• Farming and prostate cancer among African-Americans in the Southeastern Untied States
  A study looking at African-American farmers shows further support that prostate cancer risk is associated with farming occupations.
  [Dosemeci, M., et al. 1994. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 86(22):1718-1719.]
• Farming and prostate cancer mortality
  A restrospective cohort study of male farmers find an increased risk associationed with acres of farmland sprayed with herbicides and dying from prostate cancer. No other farm activity examined in the study was associated with any detectable pattern of increased or decreased risk.
  [Morrison, H., et al. 1993. American Journal of Epidemiology 137(3):270-280.]
• Correlation analysis of pesticide use data and cancer incidence rates in California counties
  An ecological study in California analyzing data on pesticide use and cancer incidence finds a correlation between black males diagnosed with prostate cancer and atrazine and captan.
  [Mills, P.K. 1998. Arch Environ Health 53(6):410-413.]
• Agent Orange exposure, Vietnam War veterans, and the risk of prostate cancer
  Twice as many Vietnam veterans exposed to Agent Oragne were identified with prostate cancer (239 vs 124 unexposed men, respectively; (OR 2.19). Individuals who were exposed to Agent Orange had an increased incidence of prostate cancer; developed the disease at a younger age, and had a more aggressive variant than their unexposed counterparts.
  [Chamie, K., deVere White, R. W., Lee, D., Ok, J. and Ellison, L. M. 2008. Cancer, 113: 2464–2470.]
• Use of Agricultural Pesticides and Prostate Cancer Risk in the Agricultural Health Study Cohort
  Using Agriculutral Health Study data, researchers evaluated the role of 45 pesticides and found that a few of them showed evidence of a possible association with prostate cancer among pesticide applicators. Methyl bromide was linked to the risk of prostate cancer in the entire group, while exposure to six other pesticides -chlorpyrifos, coumaphos, fonofos, phorate, permethrin, and butylate- was associated with an increased risk of prostate cancer among men with a family history of the disease.
  [Alavanja MC, et al. 2003. Am J Epidemiol 157(9):800-14.]

Sinonasal cancer

• Genotoxicity studies on permethrin, DEET and diazinon in primary human nasal mucosal cells
  A study testing permethrin, DEET and diazinon on human nasal mucosa cells finds some evidence of cardingoencity of these agents.
  [Tisch, M., et al. 2002. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 259:150-153.]

• Pesticide sales and adult male cancer mortality in Brazil.
  A study of pesticides sales in different parts of Brazil and cancer mortality rates a decade later finds a statistically significant correlation between pesticide sales with the mortality rates for leukemia
  [Chrisman, J.D., et al. 2009. Int J Hyg Environ Health ;212(3):310-21]
• Risk of childhood cancers associated with residence in agriculturally intense areas in the United States.
  An ecological study analyzing incidence data from U.S. children ages 0-14 years diagnosed with cancer between 1995 and 2001 and residence in a county with agricultural activity finds an elevated risk for soft tissue sarcomas at high agricultural activity (greater than 60% of county acreage devoted to farming). When looking at sub-types, risk increased for rhabdomyosarcomas and category including germ cell, trophoblastic, and gonadal neoplasms. When looking at crop acreage, an increased risk if found for germ cell carcinomas and oat crops.
  [Carrozza, S.E., et al. 2008. Environ Health Perspect 116(4):559-565]
• Home pesticide use and childhood cancer: a case-control study
  A 1995 case-control study of Denver children finds that yard pesticide applications are linked to a four-fold increase in risk to soft tissue sarcomas
  [Leiss, J., et al. 1995. American Journal of Public Health 85:249-252]
• Soft tissue sarcoma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in workers exposed to phenoxy herbicides, chlorophenols, and dioxins: two nested case-control studies.
  A nested international occupational case-control study finds excess risk of soft tissue sarcoma with exposure to chlorophenoxy herbicides (OR 10.3) including 2,4-D.
  [Kogevinas, M, et al. 1995. Epidemiology 6(4):396-402]
• Risk factors for soft tissue sarcomas in childhood: a case-control study.
  A hospital-based case-control study on childhood soft tissue sarcomas in Italy finds a positive association with maternal employment as a farmer,=.
  [Magnani, C., et al. 1989. Tumori 75(4):396-400]

Stomach Cancer

• Associations between stomach cancer incidence and drinking water contamination with atrazine and nitrate in Ontario (Canada) agroecosystems, 1987-1991
  Drinking water contaminated with atrazine below the maximum allowable limits (50ng/l to 649ng/l) is associated with stomach cancer incidence.
  [Van Leeuwen, J.A., et al. 1999. International Journal of Epidemiology 28:836-840.]
• Agricultural exposures and gastric cancer risk in Hispanic farm workers in California
  Occupation in the citrus industry (OR 2.88) and in areas with high 2,4-D use (OR 1.85), and use of acaricide propargite (OR 2.86) or triflurin (OR 1.69) are associated gastric cancer.
  [Mills, P.K., and Yang, R.C. 2007. Environ Res 104(2):282-289.]
• Cancer among farmers in central Italy
  A case-referent study of Italian farmers finds a significantly increased risk of stomach cancer among farmers with greater than 10 years experience and among licensed pesticides users with greater than 10 years’ experience.
  [Forastiere, F, et al. 1993. Scand J Work Environ Health 19(6):382-389.]
  

Testicular Cancer

• Cancer incidence in a cohort of licensed pesticide applicators in Florida
  Cancer incidence among licensed pesticide applicators in Florida is elevated for testicular cancer (SIR 2.48) and cervical cancer (SIR 3.69).
  [Fleming, L., et al. 1999. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine 41(4):279-288.]
• Correlation analysis of pesticide use data and cancer incidence rates in California counties
  An ecological study in California analyzing data on pesticide use and cancer incidence finds a correlation between Hispanic males diagnosed with testicular cancer and atrazine.
  [Mills, P.K. 1998. Arch Environ Health 53(6):410-413.]
• Testicular cancer associated with employment in agriculture and oil and natural gas extraction
  A hospital-based case-control study find an increased risk for testicular cancer in men who work in the agricultural industry.
  [Mills, P.K., et al. 1984. Lancet 1(8370):207-210.]
  

Thyroid Cancer

• Nitrate intake and the risk of thyroid cancer and thyroid disease
  Study finds an increased risk of thyroid cancer with higher average nitrate levels in public water supplies (nitrate is a contaminant of drinking water in agricultural areas) and with longer consumption of water exceeding 5 mg/L nitrate-N (for >or=5 years at >5 mg/L, relative risk = 2.6).
  [Ward MH, et al. 2010. Epidemiology. 21(3):389-95].
• Risk of childhood cancers associated with residence in agriculturally intense areas in the United States
  An ecological study analyzing incidence data from U.S. children ages 0-14 years diagnosed with cancer between 1995 and 2001 and residence in a county with moderate to high agricultural activity finds statistically significantly elevated risk for thyroid carcinomas (OR 3.0) at high agricultural activity (greater than 60 percent of the total county acreage is devoted to farming). An increased risk is also found for thyroid carcinomas and oat crop acreage (OR 2.0).
  [Carrozza, S.E., et al. 2008. Environ Health Perspect 116(4):559-565.]

Uteran Cancer

• Geographical differences of cancer incidence in Costa Rica in relation to environmental and occupational pesticide exposure
  A study in Costa Rica finds heavy pesticide use in rural counties is associated with an increase risk for cancer of the corpus uteri (OR 1.78).
  [Wesseling, C., et al. 1999. International Journal of Epidemiology 28:365-374.]